Woodworking

Woodworking is the activity or skill of making items from, and includes cabinet making ( and ), , , , and.

History
Along with, and animal parts, wood was one of the first materials worked by s.  of the  s used by the s show that many were used to work wood. The development of civilization was closely tied to the development of increasingly greater degrees of skill in working these materials.

Among early finds of wooden tools are the worked sticks from, and. The s from  provide some of the first examples of wooden hunting gear. tools were used for carving. Since, carved wooden vessels are known, for example, from the s at  and.

Examples of wood-carving include s worked into s from northern Germany and  and wooden s. The  of  in Germany has provided fine examples of wooden animal statues from the. Wooden s from the period are known from a sanctuary at the source of the  in.

Ancient Egypt
There is significant evidence of advanced woodworking in. Woodworking is depicted in many extant ancient Egyptian drawings, and a considerable amount of ancient Egyptian (such as stools, s,, s, ) has been preserved. Tombs represent a large collection of these artefacts and the inner coffins found in the tombs were also made of wood. The used by the  for woodworking tools was originally  and eventually, after 2000 BC  as  was unknown until much later.

Commonly used woodworking tools included s, s, s,, and s. joints are attested from the earliest. These joints were strengthened using pegs, and  or  lashings. came to be used only in the. Ancient Egyptians invented the art of and used es for, though the composition of these varnishes is unknown. Although different native s were used, as was the wood from the local and  trees,  in the  resulted in the need for the importation of wood, notably, but also ,  and , starting from the.

Ancient Rome
Woodworking was essential to the Romans. It provided, sometimes the only, material for buildings, transportation, tools, and household items. Wood also provided pipes, dye, waterproofing materials, and energy for heat.Although most examples of Roman woodworking have been lost, the literary record preserved much of the contemporary knowledge. Vitruvius dedicates an entire chapter of his to timber, preserving many details. Pliny, while not a botanist, dedicated six books of his to trees and woody plants, providing a wealth of information on trees and their uses.

Ancient China
The progenitors of Chinese woodworking are considered to be (魯班) and his wife Lady Yun, from the  (771 to 476 BC). Lu Ban is said to have introduced the, chalk-line, and other tools to China. His teachings were supposedly left behind in the book Lu Ban Jing (魯班經, "Manuscript of Lu Ban"). Despite this, it is believed that the text was written some 1500 years after his death. This book is filled largely with descriptions of dimensions for use in building various items such as s, tables, s, etc., and also contains extensive instructions concerning. It mentions almost nothing of the intricate glue-less and nail-less for which  was so famous.

Modern day
With the advances in modern technology and the demands of industry, woodwork as a field has changed. The development of Computer Numeric Controlled Machines, for example, has made us able to mass-produce and reproduce products faster, with less waste, and often more complex in design than ever before. CNC Routers can carve complicated and highly detailed shapes into flat stock, to create signs or art. Rechargeable power tools speed up creation of many projects and require much less body strength than in the past, for example when boring multiple holes. Skilled fine woodworking, however, remains a craft pursued by many. There remains demand for hand crafted work such as furniture and arts, however with rate and cost of production, the cost for consumers is much higher.

Materials
Historically, woodworkers relied upon the woods native to their region, until transportation and trade innovations made more exotic woods available to the craftsman. Woods are typically sorted into three basic types: s typified by tight and derived from  trees, s from  trees, and man-made materials such as  and.

Hardwoods, botanically known as angiosperms, are deciduous and shed their leaves annually with temperature changes. Softwoods come from trees botanically known as gymnosperms, which are coniferous, cone-bearing, and stay green year round. Although a general pattern, softwoods are not necessarily always “softer” than hardwoods, and vice versa.

Softwood is most commonly found in the regions of the world with lower temperatures and is typically less durable, lighter in weight, and more vulnerable to pests and fungal attacks in comparison to hardwoods. They typically have a paler color and a more open grain than hardwoods, which contributes to the tendency of felled softwood to shrink and swell as it dries. Softwoods usually have a lower density, around 25-37lb/cu ft, which can compromise its strength. Density, however, does vary within both softwoods and hardwoods depending on the wood's geographical origin and growth rate. However, the lower density of softwoods also allows it to have a greater strength with lighter weight. In the United States, softwoods are typically cheaper and more readily available and accessible. Most softwoods are suitable for general construction, especially framing, trim, and finish work, and carcassing.

Hardwoods are separated into two categories, temperate and tropical hardwoods, depending on their origin. Temperate hardwoods are found in the regions between the tropics and poles, and are of particular interest to wood workers for their cost-effective aesthetic appeal and sustainable sources. Tropical hardwoods are found within the equatorial belt, including Africa, Asia, and South America. Hardwoods flaunt a higher density, around 65lb/cu ft as a result of slower growing rates and is more stable when drying. As a result of its high density, hardwoods are typically heavier than softwoods but can also be more brittle. While there are an abundant number of hardwood species, only 200 are common enough and pliable enough to be used for woodworking. Hardwoods have a wide variety of properties, making it easy to find a hardwood to suit nearly any purpose, but they are especially suitable for outdoor use due to their strength and resilience to rot and decay. The coloring of hardwoods ranges from light to very dark, making it especially versatile for aesthetic purposes. However, because hardwoods are more closely grained, they are typically harder to work than softwoods. They are also harder to acquire in the United States and, as a result, are more expensive.

Typically such as tables and chairs is made using solid stock from hardwoods due to its strength and resistance to warping. Additionally, they also have a greater variety of grain patterns and color and take a finish better which allows the woodworker to exercise a great deal of artistic liberty. Hardwoods can be cut more cleanly and leave less residue on sawblades and other woodworking tools. Cabinet/fixture makers employ the use of and other man made panel products. Some furniture, such as the involve, shaping with wood while it contains its natural moisture prior to drying.

Cedar
Cedars are strong, aromatic softwoods that are capable of enduring outdoor elements, the most common of which is the Western Red Cedar. Western Red Cedar can sustain wet environments without succumbing to rot, and as a result is commonly used for outdoor projects such as patios, outdoor furniture, and building exteriors. This wood can be easily found at most home centers for a moderate price.

Fir
Fir, also known as Douglas Fir, is very inexpensive and common at local home centers. It has a characteristic straight, pronounced grain with a red-brown tint. However, its grain pattern is relatively plain and it does not stain well, so Fir is commonly used when the finished product will be painted. While commonly used for building, this softwood would also be suitable for furniture-making.

Ash
This hardwood is relatively easy to work with and takes stain well, but its white to light brown color with a straight grain is visually appealing on its own. However, ash is much more difficult to find than other common woods, and won’t be found at the local home center. Larger lumber yards should have it in stock.

Birch
Whether yellow or white birch, these hardwoods are stable and easy to work with. Despite this, Birch is prone to blotching when stained, so painting birch products is probably best. Birch is easily found at many home centers and is a relatively inexpensive hardwood.

Cherry
Popular and easy to work with, cherry is in high demand for its reddish-brown color and ease of staining and finishing. Cherry likely won’t be at the local home center, but should be at a lumberyard for a somewhat expensive price. This hardwood is a very common material for furniture, and is resistant to normal wear-and-tear, but it is best for indoor pieces.

Mahogany
A hardwood, mahogany has a trademark reddish-brown to deep-red tint and is known as “one of the great furniture woods.” However, mahogany is not typically grown in sustainable forests, and thus runs a steep price at local lumber yards.

Oak
With two varieties, red and white, oak is known to be easy to work with and relatively strong. However, furniture makers often opt for white oak over red oak for its attractive figure and moisture-resistance. Depending on the kind needed, oak can probably be found at a local home center or a lumberyard for a bit pricier than other hardwoods.

Maple
With strength, sturdiness, and durability, maple is a common material for furniture for the bedroom and even china cabinets. Maple is moisture-resistant and frequently displays stand-out swirls in the wood grain, an aesthetically pleasing differentiator from other hardwoods. While most commonly a lighter color, maple also can take stains and paint well.

Factors in Choosing Materials
There are many factors to consider when deciding what type of wood to use for a project. One of the most important is the workability of the wood: the way in which it responds when worked by hand or tools, the quality of the grain, and how it responds to adhesives and finishes. When the workability of wood is high, it offers a lower resistance when cutting and has a diminished blunting effect on tools. Highly workable wood is easier to manipulate into desired forms. If the wood grain is straight and even, it will be much easier to create strong and durable glued joints. Additionally, it will help protect the wood from splitting when nailed or screwed. Coarse grains require a lengthy process of filing and rubbing down the grain to produce a smooth result.

Another important factor to be considered is the durability of the wood, especially in regards to moisture. If the finished project will be exposed to moisture (e.g. outdoor projects) or high humidity or condensation (e.g. in kitchens or bathrooms), then the wood needs to be especially durable in order to prevent rot. Because of their oily qualities, many tropical hardwoods such as teak and mahogany are popular for such applications.

Woods with good working properties
Agba (Gossweilerodendron balsamiferum)

Alder (Alnus glutinosa)

Basswood (Tilia americana)

Obeah (Triplochiton scleroxylon)

Pine (Pinus)

Western Cedar (Thuja plicata)

Very durable woods
Teak (Tectona grandis)

Iron (Milicia excelsa)

Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata)

Chestnut (Castanea)

Oak (Quercus)

Cedar (Thuja)

Woods used for carving
While many woods can be used for carving, there are some clear favorites, including Aspen, Basswood, Butternut, Black Walnut, and Oak. Because it has almost no grain and is notably soft, Basswood is particularly popular with beginner carvers. It is used in many lower-cost instruments like guitars and electric basses. Aspen is similarly soft, although slightly harder, and readily available and inexpensive. Butternut has a deeper hue than Basswood and Aspen and has a nice grain that is easy to carve, and thus friendly for beginners. It's also suitable for furniture. While more expensive that Basswood, Aspen, and Butternut, Black Walnut is a popular choice for its rich color and grain. Lastly, Oak is a strong, sturdy, and versatile wood for carving with a defined grain. It's also a popular wood for furniture making.