Judaism

Jewish history is the history of the, and their and , as it developed and interacted with other peoples, religions and cultures. Although Judaism as a religion first appears in Greek records during the (323 BCE – 31 BCE) and the earliest mention of  is inscribed on the  dated 1213–1203 BCE, religious literature tells the story of Israelites going back at least as far as c. 1500 BCE. The began with the  and continued on a much larger scale with the. Jews were also widespread throughout the, and this carried on to a lesser extent in the period of rule in the central and eastern. In 638 CE the Byzantine Empire lost control of the Levant. The Arab under  conquered  and the lands of, , Palestine and Egypt. The coincided with the  in Europe, a period of  throughout much of the. During that time, Jews were generally accepted in society and Jewish religious, cultural, and economic life blossomed.

During the Classical Ottoman period (1300–1600), the Jews, together with most other communities of the empire, enjoyed a certain level of prosperity. In the 17th century, there were many significant Jewish populations in Western Europe. During the period of the and Enlightenment, significant changes occurred within the Jewish community. Jews began in the 18th century to campaign for emancipation from restrictive laws and integration into the wider European society. During the 1870s and 1880s the Jewish population in Europe began to more actively discuss emigration back to Israel and the re-establishment of the Jewish Nation in its national homeland. The Zionist movement was founded officially in 1897. Meanwhile, the Jews of Europe and the United States gained success in the fields of science, culture and the economy. Among those generally considered the most famous were scientist and philosopher. A large number of winners at this time were Jewish, as is still the case.

In 1933, with the rise to power of and the  in Germany, the Jewish situation became more severe. Economic crises, racial anti-Semitic laws, and a fear of an upcoming war led many Jews to flee from Europe to Palestine, to the United States and to the. In 1939 began and until 1941 Hitler occupied almost all of Europe, including Poland—where millions of Jews were living at that time—and France. In 1941, following the invasion of the Soviet Union, the began, an extensive organized operation on an unprecedented scale, aimed at the annihilation of the Jewish people, and resulting in the persecution and murder of Jews in political Europe, inclusive of European North Africa (pro-Nazi Vichy-North Africa and Italian Libya). This, in which approximately six million Jews were methodically exterminated, is known as or Shoah (Hebrew term). In Poland, three million Jews were killed in in all concentration camps combined, with one million at the  camp complex  alone.

In 1945 the Jewish resistance organizations in Palestine unified and established the Jewish Resistance Movement, which attacked the British authorities. David Ben-Gurion proclaimed on May 14, 1948, the establishment of a in  to be known as the. Immediately afterwards all neighbouring Arab states attacked, yet the newly formed IDF resisted. In 1949 the war ended and the state of Israel started building the state and absorbing massive waves of hundreds of thousands of Jews from all over the world. Today (2019), is a  with a population of over 9 million people, of whom about 7 million are. The largest Jewish communities are in Israel and the, with major communities in France, Argentina, Russia, United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, and. For statistics related to modern Jewish demographics see .

Time periods in Jewish history
The history of the Jews and Judaism can be divided into five periods: (1) ancient Israel before Judaism, from the beginnings to 586 BCE; (2) the beginning of Judaism in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE; (3) the formation of after the destruction of the  in 70 CE; (4) the age of rabbinic Judaism, from the ascension of  to political power under the  in 312 CE to the end of the political hegemony of Christianity in the 18th century; and (5), the age of diverse Judaisms, from the French and American Revolutions to the present.

Ancient Israelites (until c. 586 BCE)
The history of the early Jews, and their neighbors, centers on the and east coast of the. It begins among those people who occupied the area lying between the river and. Surrounded by ancient seats of culture in and, by the deserts of , and by the highlands of , the land of  (roughly corresponding to modern Israel, the Palestinian Territories, Jordan and Lebanon) was a meeting place of civilizations.

According to the, Jews descend from the who settled in the land of Canaan between the eastern coast of the  and the. The Hebrew Bible refers to the "Children of Israel" as Israelite descendants of a common ancestor. It also suggests that the nomadic travels of the centered on  in the first centuries of the second millennium BCE, leading to the establishment of the  as their burial site in Hebron. The Children of Israel, in this account, consisted of twelve tribes, each descended from one of Jacob's twelve sons,, , , , , , , , , , , and.

The Book of Genesis, chapters 25–50, tells the story of Jacob and his twelve sons, who left Canaan during a severe famine and settled in of northern Egypt. The Egyptian government allegedly enslaved their descendants, although there is no independent evidence of this having occurred. After some 400 years of slavery,, the , sent the Hebrew prophet of the tribe of Levi to release the Israelites from bondage. According to the Bible, the Hebrews miraculously emigrated out of (an event known as ), and returned to their ancestral homeland in Canaan. According to the Bible, after their emancipation from Egyptian slavery, the people of Israel wandered around and lived in the for a span of forty years before conquering Canaan in 1400 BCE under the command of. While living in the desert, according to the Biblical writings, the nation of Israel received the at  from  via Moses. After entering Canaan, portions of the land were given to each of the twelve tribes of Israel.

However, archaeology reveals a different story of the origins of the Jewish people: they did not necessarily leave the Levant. The archaeological evidence of the largely indigenous origins of Israel in Canaan, not Egypt, is "overwhelming" and leaves "no room for an Exodus from Egypt or a 40-year pilgrimage through the Sinai wilderness". Many archaeologists have abandoned the archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus as "a fruitless pursuit". A century of research by archaeologists and Egyptologists has arguably found no evidence that can be directly related to the Exodus narrative of an Egyptian captivity and the escape and travels through the wilderness, leading to the suggestion that Israel—the kingdoms of Judah and Israel—has its origins in Canaan, not in Egypt: The culture of the earliest Israelite settlements is Canaanite, their cult-objects are those of the Canaanite god, the pottery remains in the local Canaanite tradition, and the alphabet used is early Canaanite. Almost the sole marker distinguishing the "Israelite" villages from Canaanite sites is an absence of pig bones, although whether this can be taken as an ethnic marker or is due to other factors remains a matter of dispute.

For several hundred years, the was organized into a confederacy of twelve tribes ruled by a series of. After that came the Israelite monarchy, established in 1000 BCE under, and continued under King and his son,. During the reign of David, the already existing city of became the national and spiritual capital of the. Solomon built the on  in Jerusalem. However, the tribes were fracturing politically. Upon his death, a civil war erupted between the ten northern Israelite tribes, and the tribes of ( was absorbed into Judah) and  in the south. The nation split into the in the north, and the  in the south. The n ruler conquered the northern kingdom of Israel in the 8th century BCE. No commonly accepted historical record accounts for the ultimate fate of the ten northern tribes, sometimes referred to as the, although speculation abounds.

Babylonian captivity (c. 587 – 538 BCE)
After revolting against the new dominant power and an ensuing siege, the Kingdom of Judah was conquered by the in 587 BCE and the  was destroyed. The elite of the kingdom and many of their people were exiled to Babylon, where the religion developed outside their traditional temple. Others. After the fall of Jerusalem, (modern day Iraq), would become the focus of Judaism for more than a thousand years. The first Judahite communities in Babylonia started with the exile of the Tribe of Judah to Babylon by in 597 BCE as well as after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 586 BCE. Babylonia, where some of the largest and most prominent Jewish cities and communities were established, became the center of Jewish life all the way up to the 13th century. By the first century, Babylonia already held a speedily growing population of an estimated 1,000,000 Judahites which increased to an estimated 2 million between the years 200 CE and 500 CE, both by natural growth and by immigration of more Jews from the Land of Israel, making up about one sixth of the world Jewish population at that era. It was there that they would write the Babylonian in the languages used by the Jews of ancient Babylonia— and.

The Jews established, also known as the , which became the center for Jewish scholarship and the development of Jewish law in Babylonia from roughly 500 CE to 1038 CE. The two most famous academies were the and the. Major yeshivot were also located at and Mahuza.

After a few generations and with the conquest of Babylonia in 540 BC by the, some adherents led by prophets and , returned to their homeland and traditional practices. Other Judeans did not return.

Early trade with ancient India (c. 562 BCE – 70 CE)
According to tradition, traders from Judea arrived in what now the city of (Cochin) in  in 562 BCE, and more Judeans came as exiles in 70 CE after the destruction of the Second Temple.

Post-exilic period (c. 538 – 332 BCE)
Following their return to Jerusalem after the return from the exile, and with Persian approval and financing, construction of the was completed in 516 BCE under the leadership of the last three Jewish Prophets,  and.

After the death of the last Jewish prophet and while still under Persian rule, the leadership of the passed into the hands of five successive generations of  ("pairs of") leaders. They flourished first and then under the Greeks. As a result, the and  were formed. Under the Persians then under the Greeks, Jewish coins were minted in Judea as.

Hellenistic period (c. 332 – 110 BCE)
In 332 BCE, of  defeated the Persians. After Alexander's death and the division of his empire among his generals, the was formed.

The Alexandrian conquests spread Greek culture to the Levant. During this time, currents of Judaism were influenced by developed from the 3rd century BCE, notably the  in, culminating in the compilation of the. An important advocate of the symbiosis of Jewish theology and Hellenistic thought is.

The Hasmonean Kingdom (110–63 BCE)
A deterioration of relations between Hellenized Jews and other Jews led the Seleucid king to issue decrees banning certain. Subsequently, some of the nonhellenized Jews revolted under the leadership of the family (also known as the ). This revolt eventually led to the formation of an independent Jewish kingdom, known as the, which lasted from 165 BCE to 63 BCE. The Hasmonean Dynasty eventually disintegrated as a result of civil war between the sons of ; and. The people, who did not want to be governed by a king but by theocratic clergy, made appeals in this spirit to the Roman authorities. A Roman campaign of conquest and annexation, led by, soon followed.

Roman rule in the land of Israel (63 BCE – 324 CE)
Judea had been an independent Jewish kingdom under the s, but was and reorganized as a client state. was going on in other areas as well, and would continue for more than a hundred and fifty years. Later, was appointed "King of the Jews" by the, supplanting the Hasmonean dynasty. Some of his offspring held various positions after him, known as the. Briefly, from 4 BCE to 6 CE, ruled the  as, the Romans denying him the title of King. After the in 6 CE, the  was formed as a satellite of  under the rule of a  (as was ) until 41 CE, then  after 44 CE. The empire was often callous and brutal in its treatment of its Jewish subjects, (see ). In 30 CE (or 33 CE),, an itinerant from , and the central figure of , was put to death by  in Jerusalem under the Roman prefect of ,. In 66 CE, the Jews against the Roman rulers of Judea. The revolt was defeated by the future Roman emperors and. In the in 70 CE, the Romans destroyed the Temple in Jerusalem and, according to some accounts, plundered artifacts from the temple, such as the. Jews continued to live in their land in significant numbers, the of 115–117 CE notwithstanding, until  ravaged Judea while putting down the  of 132–136 CE. 985 villages were destroyed and most of the Jewish population of central Judaea was essentially wiped out, killed, sold into slavery, or forced to flee. Banished from Jerusalem, except for the day of, the Jewish population now centred on and initially in. Jerusalem was renamed and Judea was renamed, to spite the Jews by naming it after their ancient enemies, the. Jews were only allowed to visit Aelia Capitolina on the day of.

The diaspora
The Jewish diaspora began with the Assyrian conquest and continued on a much larger scale with the Babylonian conquest, in which the Tribe of Judah was exiled to Babylonia along with the dethroned King of Judah,, in the 6th century BCE, and was taken into captivity in 597 BCE. The exile continued after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 586 BCE. Many more Jews migrated to Babylon in 135 CE after the and in the centuries after.

Many of the Judaean Jews were sold into while others became citizens of other parts of the. The book of in the, as well as other  texts, make frequent reference to the large populations of  in the cities of the Roman world. These Hellenised Jews were affected by the only in its spiritual sense, absorbing the feeling of loss and homelessness that became a cornerstone of the Jewish creed, much supported by persecutions in various parts of the world. The policy encouraging and conversion to Judaism, which spread the Jewish religion throughout the, seems to have subsided with the wars against the Romans.

Of critical importance to the reshaping of Jewish tradition from the Temple-based religion to the rabbinic traditions of the Diaspora, was the development of the interpretations of the Torah found in the  and .

Late Roman period in the Land of Israel
The relations of the Jews with the Roman Empire in the region continued to be complicated. allowed Jews to mourn their defeat and humiliation once a year on at the. In 351–352 CE, the Jews of Galilee launched, provoking heavy retribution. The Gallus revolt came during the rising influence of early Christians in the Eastern Roman Empire, under the. In 355, however, the relations with the Roman rulers improved, upon the rise of Emperor, the last of the Constantinian dynasty, who unlike his predecessors defied Christianity. In 363, not long before Julian left Antioch to launch his campaign against Sasanian Persia, in keeping with his effort to foster religions other than Christianity, he ordered the Jewish Temple rebuilt. The failure to rebuild the Temple has mostly been ascribed to the dramatic and traditionally also to the Jews' ambivalence about the project. Sabotage is a possibility, as is an accidental fire. Divine intervention was the common view among Christian historians of the time. Julian's support of Jews caused Jews to call him "Julian the ". Julian's fatal wound in the Persian campaign and his consequent death had put an end to Jewish aspirations, and Julian's successors embraced Christianity through the entire timeline of Byzantine rule of Jerusalem, preventing any Jewish claims.

In 438 CE, when the Empress removed the ban on Jews' praying at the, the heads of the Community in Galilee issued a call "to the great and mighty people of the Jews" which began: "Know that the end of the exile of our people has come!" However, the Christian population of the city, who saw this as a threat to their primacy, didn't allow it and a riot erupted after which they chased away the Jews from the city.

During the 5th and the 6th centuries, a series of broke out across the  province. Especially violent were the third and the fourth revolts, which resulted in almost the entire annihilation of the Samaritan community. It is likely that the Samaritan was joined by the Jewish community, which had also suffered a brutal suppression of Israelite religion.

In the belief of restoration to come, in the early 7th century the Jews made an with the, who invaded Palaestina Prima in 614, fought at their side, overwhelmed the  garrison in Jerusalem, and were given Jerusalem to be governed as an autonomy. However, their autonomy was brief: the in Jerusalem was shortly assassinated during a Christian revolt and though Jerusalem was reconquered by Persians and Jews within 3 weeks, it fell into anarchy. With the consequent withdrawal of Persian forces, Jews surrendered to Byzantines in 625 or 628 CE, but were massacred by Christian radicals in 629 CE, with the survivors fleeing to Egypt. The Byzantine (Eastern Roman Empire) control of the region was finally lost to the Muslim Arab armies in 637 CE, when completed the conquest of Akko.

Jews of Babylonia (219–1250 CE)
After the fall of Jerusalem, (modern day Iraq), would become the focus of Judaism for more than a thousand years. The first Jewish communities in Babylonia started with the exile of the Tribe of Judah to Babylon by in 597 BCE as well as after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 586 BCE. Many more Jews migrated to Babylon in 135 CE after the and in the centuries after. Babylonia, where some of the largest and most prominent Jewish cities and communities were established, became the center of Jewish life all the way up to the 13th century. By the first century, Babylonia already held a speedily growing population of an estimated 1,000,000 Jews, which increased to an estimated 2 million between the years 200 CE and 500 CE, both by natural growth and by immigration of more Jews from the Land of Israel, making up about 1/6 of the world Jewish population at that era. It was there that they would write the Babylonian in the languages used by the Jews of ancient Babylonia:  and. The Jews established, also known as the Geonic Academies ("Geonim" meaning "splendour" in Biblical Hebrew or "geniuses"), which became the center for Jewish scholarship and the development of Jewish law in Babylonia from roughly 500 CE to 1038 CE. The two most famous academies were the and the. Major yeshivot were also located at and Mahuza. The Talmudic Academies became a main part of Jewish culture and education, and Jews continued on establishing Yeshiva Academies in Western and Eastern Europe, North Africa, and in the centuries later on to America and other countries around the world where Jews lived in the Diaspora. Talmudic study in academies continue today with the establishment of a large number of Yeshiva academies, most of them located in The United States and.

These Talmudic academies of Babylonia followed the era of the  ("expounders")—the sages of the Talmud who were active (both in the  and in Babylon) during the end of the era of the sealing of the  and until the times of the sealing of the Talmud (220CE – 500CE), and following the  ("reasoners")—the sages of Beth midrash (Torah study places) in Babylon from the end of the era of the Amoraim (5th century) and until the beginning of the era of the. The Geonim (Hebrew: גאונים) were the presidents of the two great rabbinical colleges of Sura and Pumbedita, and were the generally accepted spiritual leaders of the worldwide Jewish community in the early medieval era, in contrast to the (Exilarch) who wielded secular authority over the Jews in Islamic lands. According to traditions, the were descendants of Judean kings, which is why the kings of  would treat them with much honour.

For the Jews of late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the yeshivot of Babylonia served much the same function as the ancient. That is, as a council of Jewish religious authorities. The academies were founded in pre-Islamic Babylonia under the Zoroastrian Sassanid dynasty and were located not far from the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon, which at that time was the largest city in the world. After the conquest of Persia in the 7th century, the academies subsequently operated for four hundred years under the Islamic caliphate. The first gaon of Sura, according to, was Mar bar Rab Chanan, who assumed office in 609. The last gaon of was, who died in 1034; the last gaon of Pumbedita was , who was tortured to death in 1040; hence the activity of the Geonim covers a period of nearly 450 years.

One of principal seats of Babylonian Judaism was, which was then a very large city made up mostly of Jews. A very ancient synagogue, built, it was believed, by King Jehoiachin, existed in Nehardea. At Huzal, near Nehardea, there was another synagogue, not far from which could be seen the ruins of Ezra's academy. In the period before Hadrian, Akiba, on his arrival at Nehardea on a mission from the Sanhedrin, entered into a discussion with a resident scholar on a point of matrimonial law (Mishnah Yeb., end). At the same time there was at Nisibis (northern ), an excelling Jewish college, at the head of which stood Judah ben Bathyra, and in which many Judean scholars found refuge at the time of the persecutions. A certain temporary importance was also attained by a school at Nehar-Peḳod, founded by the Judean immigrant Hananiah, nephew of, which school might have been the cause of a schism between the Jews of Babylonia and those of Judea-Israel, had not the Judean authorities promptly checked Hananiah's ambition.

Byzantine period (324–638 CE)
Jews were also widespread throughout the Roman Empire, and this carried on to a lesser extent in the period of Byzantine rule in the central and eastern Mediterranean. The militant and exclusive Christianity and of the  did not treat Jews well, and the condition and influence of diaspora Jews in the Empire declined dramatically.

It was official Christian policy to convert Jews to, and the Christian leadership used the official power of Rome in their attempts. In 351 CE the Jews revolted against the added pressures of their Governor,. Gallus put down the revolt and destroyed the major cities in the Galilee area where the revolt had started. Tzippori and Lydda (site of two of the major legal academies) never recovered.

In this period, the Nasi in Tiberias, Hillel II, created an official calendar, which needed no monthly sightings of the moon. The months were set, and the calendar needed no further authority from Judea. At about the same time, the Jewish academy at Tiberius began to collate the combined Mishnah,, explanations, and interpretations developed by generations of scholars who studied after the death of. The text was organized according to the order of the Mishna: each paragraph of Mishnah was followed by a compilation of all of the interpretations, stories, and responses associated with that Mishnah. This text is called the .

The Jews of Judea received a brief respite from official persecution during the rule of the Emperor. Julian's policy was to return the kingdom to Hellenism and he encouraged the Jews to rebuild Jerusalem. As Julian's rule lasted briefly from 361 to 363, the Jews could not rebuild sufficiently before Roman Christian rule was restored over the Empire. Beginning in 398 with the consecration of as, the Christian rhetoric against Jews continued to rise; he preached sermons with titles such as "Against the Jews" and "On the Statues, Homily 17," in which John preaches against "the Jewish sickness". Such heated language contributed to a climate of Christian distrust and hate toward the large Jewish settlements, such as those in and.

In the beginning of the 5th century, the issued a set of decrees establishing official persecution against Jews. Jews were not allowed to own slaves, build new synagogues, hold public office or try cases between a Jew and a non-Jew. Intermarriage between Jew and non-Jew was made a capital offense, as was a Christian converting to Judaism. Theodosius did away with the and abolished the post of. Under the, the authorities further restricted the civil rights of Jews, and threatened their religious privileges. The emperor interfered in the internal affairs of the synagogue, and forbade, for instance, the use of the Hebrew language in divine worship. Those who disobeyed the restrictions were threatened with corporal penalties, exile, and loss of property. The Jews at Borium, not far from Syrtis Major, who resisted the Byzantine General in his campaign against the, were forced to embrace Christianity, and their synagogue was converted to a church.

Justinian and his successors had concerns outside the province of Judea, and he had insufficient troops to enforce these regulations. As a result, the 5th century was a period when a wave of new synagogues were built, many with beautiful mosaic floors. Jews adopted the rich art forms of the Byzantine culture. Jewish mosaics of the period portray people, animals, menorahs, zodiacs, and Biblical characters. Excellent examples of these synagogue floors have been found at Beit Alpha (which includes the scene of Abraham sacrificing a ram instead of his son Isaac along with a zodiac), Tiberius, Beit Shean, and Tzippori.

The precarious existence of Jews under Byzantine rule did not long endure, largely for the explosion of the Muslim religion out of the remote Arabian peninsula (where large populations of Jews resided, see for more). The  ejected the Byzantines from the Holy Land (or the, defined as modern Israel, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria) within a few years of their victory at the  in 636. Numerous Jews fled the remaining Byzantine territories in favour of residence in the Caliphate over the subsequent centuries.

The size of the Jewish community in the Byzantine Empire was not affected by attempts by some emperors (most notably Justinian) to forcibly convert the Jews of Anatolia to Christianity, as these attempts met with very little success. Historians continue to research the status of the Jews in Asian Minor during the Byzantine rule. (for a sample of views, see, for instance, J. Starr The Jews in the Byzantine Empire, 641–1204; S. Bowman, The Jews of Byzantium; R. Jenkins Byzantium; Averil Cameron, "Byzantines and Jews: Recent Work on Early Byzantium", Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies 20 (1996)). No systematic persecution of the type endemic at that time in Western Europe (pogroms, the stake, mass expulsions, etc.) has been recorded in Byzantium. Much of the Jewish population of remained in place after the conquest of the city by.

Perhaps in the 4th century, the, a Jewish nation in modern was established, lasting until the 17th century.

Islamic period (638–1099)
In 638 CE the Byzantine Empire lost control of the Levant. The Arab under  conquered Jerusalem and the lands of, , Palestine and Egypt. As a political system, Islam created radically new conditions for Jewish economic, social, and intellectual development. permitted the Jews to reestablish their presence in Jerusalem–after a lapse of 500 years. Jewish tradition regards as a benevolent ruler and the Midrash (Nistarot de-Rav Shimon bar Yoḥai) refers to him as a "friend of Israel."

According to the Arab geographer, the Jews worked as "the assayers of coins, the dyers, the tanners and the bankers in the community". During the period, many Jewish officials served in the regime. Professor documents that at the time of the Arab conquest in the 7th century CE, the majority of the population was Jewish.

During this time Jews lived in thriving communities all across ancient Babylonia. In the Geonic period (650–1250 CE), the Babylonian Yeshiva Academies were the chief centers of Jewish learning; the Geonim (meaning either "Splendor" or "Geniuses"), who were the heads of these schools, were recognized as the highest authorities in Jewish law.

Jewish Golden Age in early Muslim Spain (711–1031)
The Golden Age of Jewish culture in Spain coincided with the in Europe, a period of  throughout much of the. During that time, were generally accepted in society and Jewish religious, cultural, and economic life blossomed.

A period of tolerance thus dawned for the Jews of the, whose number was considerably augmented by immigration from Africa in the wake of the Muslim conquest. Especially after 912, during the reign of and his son,, the Jews prospered, devoting themselves to the service of the , to the study of the sciences, and to commerce and industry, especially to trading in silk and slaves, in this way promoting the prosperity of the country. Jewish economic expansion was unparalleled. In, Jews were involved in translating Arabic texts to the , as well as translating Greek and Hebrew texts into Arabic. Jews also contributed to botany, geography, medicine, mathematics, poetry and philosophy.

'Abd al-Rahman's court physician and minister was Hasdai ben Isaac ibn Shaprut, the patron of Menahem ben Saruq, Dunash ben Labrat, and other Jewish scholars and poets. Jewish thought during this period flourished under famous figures such as Samuel Ha-Nagid, Moses ibn Ezra, Solomon ibn Gabirol and. During 'Abd al-Rahman's term of power, the scholar was appointed  of, and as a consequence  became the center of ic study, and  the meeting-place of Jewish savants.

The Golden Age ended with the invasion of al-Andalus by the, a conservative dynasty originating in North Africa, who were highly intolerant of religious minorities.

Crusaders period (1099–1260)
Sermonical messages to avenge the death of Jesus encouraged Christians to participate in the Crusades. The twelfth century Jewish narration from R. Solomon ben Samson records that crusaders en route to the Holy Land decided that before combating the Ishmaelites they would massacre the Jews residing in their midst to avenge the. The massacres began at and Jewish communities in  were seriously affected.

Crusading attacks were made upon Jews in the territory around Heidelberg. A huge loss of Jewish life took place. Many were forcibly converted to Christianity and many committed suicide to avoid baptism. A major driving factor behind the choice to commit suicide was the Jewish realisation that upon being slain their children could be taken to be raised as Christians. The Jews were living in the middle of Christian lands and felt this danger acutely. This massacre is seen as the first in a sequence of anti-Semitic events which culminated in the Holocaust. Jewish populations felt that they had been abandoned by their Christian neighbors and rulers during the massacres and lost faith in all promises and charters.

Many Jews chose self-defence. But their means of self-defence were limited and their casualties only increased. Most of the forced conversions proved ineffective. Many Jews reverted to their original faith later. The pope protested this but Emperor Henry IV agreed to permitting these reversions. The massacres began a new epoch for Jewry in Christendom. The Jews had preserved their faith from social pressure, now they had to preserve it at sword point. The massacres during the crusades strengthened the Jewry from within spiritually. The Jewish perspective was that their struggle was Israel's struggle to hallow the name of God.

In 1099, Jews helped the Arabs to defend Jerusalem against the. When the city fell, the Crusaders gathered many Jews in a synagogue and set it on fire. In Haifa, the Jews almost single-handedly defended the town against the Crusaders, holding out for a month, (June–July 1099). At this time there were Jewish communities scattered all over the country, including Jerusalem, Tiberias, Ramleh, Ashkelon, Caesarea, and. As Jews were not allowed to hold land during the Crusader period, they worked at trades and commerce in the coastal towns during times of quiescence. Most were artisans: glassblowers in, furriers and dyers in Jerusalem.

During this period, the of Tiberias established the , a system of al signs used to represent vowels or distinguish between alternative pronunciations of letters of the. Numerous and im were recorded in Palestine at this time.

wrote that in 1165 he visited Jerusalem and went to the Temple Mount, where he prayed in the "great, holy house". Maimonides established a yearly holiday for himself and his sons, the 6th of, commemorating the day he went up to pray on the Temple Mount, and another, the 9th of Cheshvan, commemorating the day he merited to pray at the in.

In 1141 issued a call to Jews to emigrate to the land of Israel and took on the long journey himself. After a stormy passage from, he arrived in Egyptian , where he was enthusiastically greeted by friends and admirers. At, he had to struggle against his heart, and the pleadings of his friend Ḥalfon ha-Levi, that he remain in , where he would be free from intolerant oppression. He started on the rough route overland. He was met along the way by Jews in and. Jewish legend relates that as he came near Jerusalem, overpowered by the sight of the Holy City, he sang his most beautiful elegy, the celebrated "Zionide" (Zion ha-lo Tish'ali). At that instant, an Arab had galloped out of a gate and rode him down; he was killed in the accident.

Mamluk period (1260–1517)
In the years 1260–1516, the land of Israel was part of the Empire of the s, who ruled first from, then from Egypt. The period was characterized by war, uprisings, bloodshed and destruction. Jews suffered persecution and humiliation, but the surviving records note at least 30 Jewish urban and rural communities at the opening of the 16th century.

is recorded as settling in the Old City of Jerusalem in 1267. He moved to, where he was active in spreading Jewish learning, which was at that time neglected in the Holy Land. He gathered a circle of pupils around him, and people came in crowds, even from the district of the Euphrates, to hear him. were said to have attended his lectures, among them Aaron ben Joseph the Elder. He later became one of the greatest authorities. Shortly after Nahmanides' arrival in Jerusalem, he addressed a letter to his son Nahman, in which he described the desolation of the Holy City. At the time, it had only two Jewish inhabitants—two brothers, dyers by trade. In a later letter from Acre, Nahmanides counsels his son to cultivate humility, which he considers to be the first of virtues. In another, addressed to his second son, who occupied an official position at the court, Nahmanides recommends the recitation of the daily prayers and warns above all against immorality. Nahmanides died after reaching seventy-six, and his remains were interred at, by the grave of.

Yechiel had to Acre in 1260, along with his son and a large group of followers. There he established the Tamudic academy Midrash haGadol d'Paris. He is believed to have died there between 1265 and 1268. In 1488, commentator on the , arrived in Jerusalem; this marked a new period of return for the Jewish community in the land.

Spain, North Africa, and the Middle East
During the Middle Ages, Jews were generally better treated by Islamic rulers than Christian ones. Despite second-class citizenship, Jews played prominent roles in Muslim courts, and experienced a "Golden Age" in about 900–1100, though the situation deteriorated after that time. resulting in the deaths of Jews did however occur in North Africa through the centuries and especially in, and , where eventually Jews were forced to live in ghettos.

During the 11th century, Muslims in Spain conducted pogroms against the Jews; those occurred in Cordoba in 1011 and in. During the Middle Ages, the governments of, , and  enacted decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues. At certain times, Jews were forced to convert to Islam or face death in some parts of Yemen, Morocco and. The s, who had taken control of much of Islamic Iberia by 1172, surpassed the in fundamentalist outlook. They treated the s harshly. They expelled both Jews and Christians from and Islamic Spain. Faced with the choice of death or conversion, many Jews emigrated. Some, such as the family of, fled south and east to the more tolerant Muslim lands, while others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms.

Europe
According to the American writer, "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the . By that ratio, if other factors had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million."

Jewish populations have existed in Europe, especially in the area of the former Roman Empire, from very early times. As Jewish males had emigrated, some sometimes took wives from local populations, as is shown by the various, compared to among Jewish populations. These groups were joined by traders and later on by members of the diaspora. Records of Jewish communities in France (see ) and Germany (see ) date from the 4th century, and substantial Jewish communities in Spain were noted even earlier.

The historian and other 20th-century scholars dispute the tradition that the Middle Ages was a uniformly difficult time for Jews. Before the Church became fully organized as an institution with an increasing array of rules, early medieval society was tolerant. Between 800 and 1100, an estimated 1.5 million Jews lived in Christian Europe. As they were not Christians, they were not included as a of the feudal system of clergy, knights and serfs. This means that they did not have to satisfy the oppressive demands for labor and military conscription that Christian commoners suffered. In relations with the Christian society, the Jews were protected by kings, princes and bishops, because of the crucial services they provided in three areas: finance, administration and medicine. The lack of political strengths did leave Jews vulnerable to exploitation through extreme taxation.

Christian scholars interested in the Bible consulted with Talmudic rabbis. As the Roman Catholic Church strengthened as an institution, the Franciscan and Dominican preaching orders were founded, and there was a rise of competitive middle-class, town-dwelling Christians. By 1300, the friars and local priests staged the Passion Plays during Holy Week, which depicted Jews (in contemporary dress) killing Christ, according to Gospel accounts. From this period, persecution of Jews and deportations became endemic. Around 1500, Jews found relative security and a renewal of prosperity in present-day.

After 1300, Jews suffered more discrimination and persecution in Christian Europe. Europe's Jewry was mainly urban and literate. The Christians were inclined to regard Jews as obstinate deniers of the truth because in their view the Jews were expected to know of the truth of the Christian doctrines from their knowledge of the Jewish scriptures. Jews were aware of the pressure to accept Christianity. As Catholics were forbidden by the church to loan money for interest, some Jews became prominent moneylenders. Christian rulers gradually saw the advantage of having such a class of people who could supply capital for their use without being liable to excommunication. As a result, the money trade of western Europe became a specialty of the Jews. But, in almost every instance when Jews acquired large amounts through banking transactions, during their lives or upon their deaths, the king would take it over. Jews became imperial servi cameræ, the property of the King, who might present them and their possessions to princes or cities.

Jews were frequently massacred and exiled from various European countries. The persecution hit its first peak during the. In the (1096) flourishing Jewish communities on the Rhine and the Danube were utterly destroyed. In the (1147) the Jews in France were subject to frequent massacres. They were also subjected to attacks by the and. The Crusades were followed by massive expulsions, including (in 1290) the banishing of all English Jews; in 1396 100,000 Jews were expelled from France; and in 1421, thousands were expelled from Austria. Over this time many Jews in Europe, either fleeing or being expelled, migrated to Poland, where they prospered into another.

Early Modern period
Historians who study modern Jewry have identified four different paths by which European Jews were "modernized" and thus integrated into the mainstream of European society. A common approach has been to view the process through the lens of the European as Jews faced the promise and the challenges posed by political emancipation. Scholars that use this approach have focused on two social types as paradigms for the decline of Jewish tradition and as agents of the sea changes in Jewish culture that led to the collapse of the. The first of these two social types is the who is portrayed as a forerunner of the modern Jew, having achieved integration with and participation in the proto-capitalist economy and court society of central European states such as the. In contrast to the cosmopolitan Court Jew, the second social type presented by historians of modern Jewry is the maskil, (learned person), a proponent of the (Enlightenment). This narrative sees the maskil's pursuit of secular scholarship and his rationalistic critiques of rabbinic tradition as laying a durable intellectual foundation for the secularization of Jewish society and culture. The established paradigm has been one in which Ashkenazic Jews entered modernity through a self-conscious process of westernization led by "highly atypical, Germanized Jewish intellectuals". Haskalah gave birth to the Reform and Conservative movements and planted the seeds of while at the same time encouraging cultural assimilation into the countries in which Jews resided. At around the same time that Haskalah was developing, was spreading as a movement that preached a world view almost opposed to the Haskalah.

In the 1990s, the concept of the "" has been suggested as an "alternate path to modernity" that was distinct from the European. In contrast to the focus on Ashkenazic Germanized Jews, the concept of the Port Jew focused on the Sephardi conversos who fled the Inquisition and resettled in European port towns on the coast of the Mediterranean, the Atlantic and the Eastern seaboard of the United States.

Court Jew
s were ish s or businessmen who lent money and handled the finances of some of the an noble houses. Corresponding historical terms are Jewish  and .

Examples of what would be later called court Jews emerged when local rulers used services of Jewish bankers for short-term loans. They lent money to nobles and in the process gained social influence. Noble patrons of court Jews employed them as s, suppliers, s and s. Court Jews could use their family connections, and connections between each other, to provision their sponsors with, among other things, food, arms, ammunition and precious metals. In return for their services, court Jews gained social privileges, including up to noble status for themselves, and could live outside the Jewish ghettos. Some nobles wanted to keep their bankers in their own courts. And because they were under noble protection, they were exempted from nical jurisdiction.

From medieval times, court Jews could amass personal fortunes and gained political and social influence. Sometimes they were also prominent people in the local Jewish community and could use their influence to protect and influence their brethren. Sometimes they were the only Jews who could interact with the local high society and present petitions of the Jews to the ruler. However, the court Jew had social connections and influence in the Christian world mainly through his Christian patrons. Due to the precarious position of Jews, some nobles could just ignore their debts. If the sponsoring noble died, his Jewish financier could face exile or execution.

Spain and Portugal
Significant repression of Spain's numerous community occurred during the 14th century, notably a which resulted in the majority of Spain's 300,000 Jews converting to Catholicism. With the in 1492, the Catholic monarchs issued the  whereby Spain's remaining 100,000 Jews were forced to choose between conversion and exile. As a result, an estimated 50,000 to 70,000 Jews left Spain, the remainder joining Spain's already numerous Converso community. Perhaps a quarter of a million Conversos thus were gradually absorbed by the dominant Catholic culture, although those among them who secretly practiced Judaism were subject to 40 years of intense repression by the Spanish Inquisition. This was particularly the case up until 1530, after which the trials of Conversos by the Inquisition dropped to 3% of the total. Similar expulsions of Sephardic Jews occurred 1493 in (37,000 Jews) and Portugal in 1496. The expelled Spanish Jews fled mainly to the Ottoman Empire and North Africa and Portugal. A small number also settled in Holland and England.

Port Jew
The describes Jews who were involved in the seafaring and maritime economy of Europe, especially in the 17th and 18th centuries. Helen Fry suggests that they could be considered to have been "the earliest modern Jews". According to Fry, Port Jews often arrived as "refugees from the Inquisition" and the expulsion of Jews from Iberia. They were allowed to settle in port cities as merchants granted permission to trade in ports such as Amsterdam, London, Trieste and Hamburg. Fry notes that their connections with the and their expertise in maritime trade made them of particular interest to the mercantilist governments of Europe. Lois Dubin describes Port Jews as Jewish merchants who were "valued for their engagement in the international maritime trade upon which such cities thrived". Sorkin and others have characterized the socio-cultural profile of these men as marked by a flexibility towards religion and a "reluctant cosmopolitanism that was alien to both traditional and 'enlightened' Jewish identities".

Ottoman Empire
During the Classical Ottoman period (1300–1600), the Jews, together with most other communities of the empire, enjoyed a certain level of prosperity. Compared with other Ottoman subjects, they were the predominant power in commerce and trade as well in diplomacy and other high offices. In the 16th century especially, the Jews were the most prominent under the millets, the apogee of Jewish influence could arguably be the appointment of to  (governor, a rank usually only bestowed upon Muslims) of the island of.

At the time of the when the  passed under Muslim Rule, thirty Jewish communities existed in Haifa, Sh’chem, Hebron, Ramleh, Gaza, Jerusalem, and many in the north. Safed became a spiritual centre for the Jews and the was compiled there as well as many Kabbalistic texts. The first Hebrew printing press, and the first printing in Western Asia began in 1577.

Jews lived in the geographic area of Asia Minor (modern Turkey, but more geographically either Anatolia or Asia Minor) for more than 2,400 years. Initial prosperity in Hellenistic times had faded under Christian Byzantine rule, but recovered somewhat under the rule of the various Muslim governments that displaced and succeeded rule from Constantinople. For much of the period, Turkey was a safe haven for Jews fleeing persecution, and it continues to have a small Jewish population today. The situation where Jews both enjoyed cultural and economical prosperity at times but were widely persecuted at other times was summarised by G.E. Von Grunebaum :

"It would not be difficult to put together the names of a very sizeable number of Jewish subjects or citizens of the Islamic area who have attained to high rank, to power, to great financial influence, to significant and recognized intellectual attainment; and the same could be done for Christians. But it would again not be difficult to compile a lengthy list of persecutions, arbitrary confiscations, attempted forced conversions, or pogroms."

Poland-Lithuania
In the 17th century, there were many significant Jewish populations in Western Europe. The relatively tolerant Poland had the largest Jewish population in Europe that dated back to 13th century and enjoyed relative prosperity and freedom for nearly four hundred years; however the calm situation there ended when Polish and Lithuanian Jews were slaughtered in the hundreds of thousands by the cossacks during (1648) and by the  (1655). Driven by these and other persecutions, Jews moved back to Western Europe in the 17th century. The last ban on Jews (by the English) was revoked in 1654, but periodic expulsions from individual cities still occurred, and Jews were often restricted from land ownership, or forced to live in.

With the in the late 18th century, the Jewish population was split between the, , and , which divided  for themselves.

The European Enlightenment and Haskalah (18th century)
During the period of the and Enlightenment, significant changes occurred within the Jewish community. The movement paralleled the wider Enlightenment, as Jews in the 18th century began to campaign for emancipation from restrictive laws and integration into the wider European society. Secular and scientific education was added to the traditional religious instruction received by students, and interest in a national Jewish identity, including a revival in the study of Jewish history and Hebrew, started to grow. Haskalah gave birth to the Reform and Conservative movements and planted the seeds of while at the same time encouraging cultural assimilation into the countries in which Jews resided. At around the same time another movement was born, one preaching almost the opposite of Haskalah,. Hasidic Judaism began in the 18th century by, and quickly gained a following with its more exuberant, mystical approach to religion. These two movements, and the traditional orthodox approach to Judaism from which they spring, formed the basis for the modern divisions within Jewish observance.

At the same time, the outside world was changing, and debates began over the potential emancipation of the Jews (granting them equal rights). The first country to do so was France, during the in 1789. Even so, Jews were expected to assimilate, not continue their traditions. This ambivalence is demonstrated in the famous speech of before the  in 1789:

"We must refuse everything to the Jews as a nation and accord everything to Jews as individuals. We must withdraw recognition from their judges; they should only have our judges. We must refuse legal protection to the maintenance of the so-called laws of their Judaic organization; they should not be allowed to form in the state either a political body or an order. They must be citizens individually. But, some will say to me, they do not want to be citizens. Well then! If they do not want to be citizens, they should say so, and then, we should banish them. It is repugnant to have in the state an association of non-citizens, and a nation within the nation..."

Hasidic Judaism
is a branch of that promotes spirituality and joy through the popularisation and internalisation of  as the fundamental aspects of the. Hasidism comprises part of contemporary Judaism, alongside the previous Talmudic  approach and the Oriental  tradition.

It was founded in 18th-century by Rabbi Israel  as a reaction against overly  Judaism. Opposite to this, Hasidic teachings cherished the sincerity and concealed holiness of the unlettered common folk, and their equality with the scholarly elite. The emphasis on the Divine presence in everything gave new value to prayer and deeds of kindness, alongside Rabbinic supremacy of, and replaced historical  and   and  with optimism, encouragement, and daily. This populist emotional revival accompanied the elite ideal of nullification to paradoxical Divine, through intellectual articulation of inner dimensions of mystical thought. The adjustment of Jewish values sought to add to required standards of ritual, while relaxing others where inspiration predominated. Its communal gatherings celebrate soulful and  as forms of mystical devotion.

19th century
Though persecution still existed, emancipation spread throughout Europe in the 19th century. invited Jews to leave the and seek refuge in the newly created tolerant political regimes that offered equality under Napoleonic Law (see ). By 1871, with Germany's emancipation of Jews, every European country except Russia had emancipated its Jews.

Despite increasing integration of the Jews with secular society, a new form of anti-Semitism emerged, based on the ideas of race and nationhood rather than the religious hatred of the Middle Ages. This form of anti-Semitism held that Jews were a separate and inferior race from the people of Western Europe, and led to the emergence of political parties in France, Germany, and Austria-Hungary that campaigned on a platform of rolling back emancipation. This form of anti-Semitism emerged frequently in European culture, most famously in the in France. These persecutions, along with state-sponsored s in Russia in the late 19th century, led a number of Jews to believe that they would only be safe in their own nation. See and.

During this period, Jewish migration to the (see ) created a large new community mostly freed of the restrictions of Europe. Over 2 million Jews arrived in the United States between 1890 and 1924, most from Russia and Eastern Europe. A similar case occurred in the southern tip of the continent, specifically in the countries of and.

Modern Zionism
During the 1870s and 1880s the Jewish population in Europe began to more actively discuss immigration back to Israel and the re-establishment of the Jewish Nation in its national homeland, fulfilling the biblical prophecies relating to. In 1882 the first Zionist settlement——was founded by immigrants who belonged to the "" movement. Later on, the "" movement established many other settlements in the land of Israel.

The Zionist movement was founded officially after the (1884) and the  (1897), and it was  who began the struggle to establish a state for the Jews.

After the, it seemed that the conditions to establish such a state had arrived: The United Kingdom captured from the , and the Jews received the promise of a "National Home" from the British in the form of the , given to.

In 1920 the British Mandate of Palestine began and the pro-Jewish was appointed High Commissioner in Palestine, the  was established and several big Jewish immigration waves to Palestine occurred. The Arab co-inhabitants of Palestine were hostile to increasing Jewish immigration however, and began to oppose Jewish settlement and the pro-Jewish policy of the British government by violent means.

Arab gangs began performing violent acts and murders on convoys and on the Jewish population. After the 1920 and 1921, the Jewish leadership in Palestine believed that the British had no desire to confront local Arab gangs over their attacks on Palestinian Jews. Believing that they could not rely on the British administration for protection from these gangs, the Jewish leadership created the Haganah organization to protect their farms and Kibbutzim.

Major riots occurred during the and the.

Due to the increasing violence the United Kingdom gradually started to backtrack from the original idea of a Jewish state and to speculate on a or an Arab state that would have a Jewish minority.

Meanwhile, the Jews of Europe and the United States gained success in the fields of the science, culture and the economy. Among those generally considered the most famous were scientist and philosopher. A disproportionate number of winners at this time were Jewish, as is still the case. In Russia, many Jews were involved in the and belonged to the.

The Holocaust
In 1933, with the rise to power of and the  in Germany, the Jewish situation became more severe. Economic crises, racial, and a fear of an upcoming war led many Jews to flee from Europe to Palestine, to the United States and to the Soviet Union.

In 1939 began and until 1941  occupied almost all of Europe, including Poland—where millions of Jews were living at that time—and France. In 1941, following the invasion of the Soviet Union, the began, an extensive organized operation on an unprecedented scale, aimed at the annihilation of the Jewish people, and resulting in the persecution and murder of Jews in political Europe, inclusive of European North Africa (pro-Nazi Vichy-North Africa and Italian Libya). This, in which approximately six million Jews were murdered methodically and with horrifying cruelty, is known as or Shoah (Hebrew term). In Poland, one million Jews were murdered in at the  camp complex  alone.

The massive scale of the Holocaust, and the horrors that happened during it, heavily affected the Jewish nation and world public opinion, which only understood the dimensions of the Holocaust after the war. Efforts were then increased to establish a Jewish state in Palestine.

The establishment of the State of Israel
In 1945 the Jewish resistance organizations in Palestine unified and established the Jewish Resistance Movement. The movement began attacking the British authority. Following the, , president of the appealed to the movement to cease all further military activity until a decision would be reached by the. The Jewish Agency backed Weizmann's recommendation to cease activities, a decision reluctantly accepted by the Haganah, but not by the Irgun and the Lehi. The JRM was dismantled and each of the founding groups continued operating according to their own policy.

The Jewish leadership decided to center the struggle in the illegal immigration to Palestine and began organizing a massive number of Jewish war refugees from Europe, without the approval of the British authorities. This immigration contributed a great deal to the Jewish settlements in Israel in the world public opinion and the British authorities decided to let the United Nations decide upon the fate of Palestine.

On November 29, 1947, the adopted (II) recommending partitioning Palestine into an Arab state, a Jewish state and the City of Jerusalem. The Jewish leadership accepted the decision but the Arab League and the leadership of Palestinian Arabs opposed it. Following a period of the  started.

In the middle of the war, after the last soldiers of the British mandate left Palestine, David Ben-Gurion proclaimed on May 14, 1948, the establishment of a in  to be known as the. In 1949 the war ended and the state of Israel started building the state and absorbing massive waves of hundreds of thousands of Jews from all over the world.

Since 1948, Israel has been involved in a series of major military conflicts, including the 1956, 1967 , 1973 , , and , as well as a nearly constant series of ongoing minor conflicts.

Since 1977, an ongoing and largely unsuccessful series of diplomatic efforts have been initiated by Israel, Palestinian organisations, their neighbours, and other parties, including the United States and the European Union, to bring about a to resolve conflicts between Israel and its neighbors, mostly over the fate of the Palestinian people.

21st century
is a with a population of over 8 million people, of whom about 6 million are. The largest Jewish communities are in Israel and the, with major communities in France, Argentina, Russia, England, and Canada. For statistics related to modern Jewish demographics see .

The, created during the period, continues to be an  of the Russian state. The of, , says there are 4,000 Jews in the capital city. has stated that he intends to, "support every valuable initiative maintained by our local Jewish organizations". The opened in 2004 on the 70th anniversary of the region's founding in 1934.

Jewish history by country or region
For historical and contemporary Jewish populations by country, see.