Carthage

Carthage was a Phoenician state that included, during the 7th–3rd centuries BC, its wider sphere of influence known as the Carthaginian Empire. The empire extended over much of the coast of Northwest Africa as well as encompassing substantial parts of coastal Iberia and the islands of the western Mediterranean Sea.

Phoenicians founded Carthage in 814 BC. Initially a dependency of the Phoenician state of Tyre, Carthage gained independence around 650 BC and established its political hegemony over other Phoenician settlements throughout the western Mediterranean, this lasting until the end of the 3rd century BC. At the height of the city's prominence, it served as a major hub of trade, with trading stations extending throughout the region.

For much of its history, Carthage was on hostile terms with the Greeks in Sicily and with the Roman Republic; tensions led to a series of armed conflicts known as the Sicilian Wars (c. 600–265 BC) and the Punic Wars (264–146 BC) respectively. The city also had to deal with potentially hostile Berbers, the indigenous inhabitants of the area where Carthage was built. In 146 BC, after the third and final Punic War, Roman forces destroyed Carthage then redesigned and occupied the site of the city. Nearly all of the other Phoenician city-states and former Carthaginian dependencies subsequently fell into Roman hands.

Roman Carthage
After the destruction of Punic Carthage in 146 BC, a new city of Carthage (Latin Carthāgō) was built on the same land. By the 3rd century, Carthage developed into one of the largest cities of the Roman Empire, with a population of several hundred thousand. It was the center of the Roman province of Africa, which was a major breadbasket of the empire. Carthage briefly became the capital of a usurper, Domitius Alexander, in 308–311. Conquered by the Vandals in 439, Carthage served as the capital of the Vandal Kingdom for a century. Re-conquered into the Byzantine Empire in 533/4, it continued to serve as a Roman (Byzantine) regional center, as the seat of the praetorian prefecture of Africa (after 590 the Exarchate of Carthage). The city was sacked and destroyed by Arabs after the Battle of Carthage in 698 to prevent it from being reconquered by the Byzantine Empire. It remained occupied during the Muslim period and was used as a fort by the Muslims until the Hafsid period when it was taken by to Crusaders with its inhabitants massacred during the Eighth Crusade. The Hafsids decided to destroy its defenses so it couldn't be used as a base by a hostile power again. Roman Carthage was used as a source to provide building materials for Kairouan and Tunis in 8th century

Donatism
The Roman governor of North Africa, lenient to the large Christian minority under his rule throughout the persecutions, was satisfied when Christians handed over their s as a token repudiation of faith. When the persecution ended, Christians who did so were called —"those who handed (the holy things) over"—by their critics (who were mainly from the poorer classes).

Like third-century, the Donatists were ; the church must be a church of "saints" (not "sinners"), and sacraments administered by traditors were invalid. In 311 (a new bishop of ) was consecrated by, an alleged traditor. His opponents consecrated, a short-lived rival who was succeeded by Donatus.

Two years later, a commission appointed by condemned the Donatists. They persisted, seeing themselves as the true Church with valid sacraments. Because of their association with the, the Donatists were repressed by Roman authorities. Although they had local support, their opponents were supported by Rome. The Donatists were still a force during the lifetime of, and disappeared only after the seventh- and eighth-century. The Donatists refused to accept the sacraments and of priests and bishops who were traditors during the persecution. The traditors had returned to positions of authority under ; according to the Donatists, sacraments administered by the traditors were invalid.

Whether the could reconcile a traditor to full communion was questioned, and the church's position was that the sacrament could. The church still imposed years- (sometimes decades-) long public for serious sins. A penitent would first beg for the prayers of those entering a church from outside its doors. They would next be permitted to kneel inside the church during the. After being allowed to stand with the congregation, the penitent would finally be allowed to receive the again. According to the Donatists, serious sin would permanently disqualify a man from leadership.

The validity of sacraments administered by priests and bishops who had been traditors was denied by the Donatists. According to Augustine, a sacrament was from God and ex opere operato (Latin for "from the work carried out”). A priest or bishop in a state of could continue to administer valid sacraments./ The Donatists believed that a repentant apostate priest could no longer consecrate the Eucharist. Some towns had Donatist and orthodox congregations.

Battle of Carthage (698)
The Battle of Carthage was fought in 698 between a  expeditionary force and the armies of the fifth.

Having lost Carthage to the s in 695, Emperor  sent the navy under the command of  and the . They entered the harbor and successfully recaptured it in a stunning surprise attack in 697, which resulted in the city's Arab forces fleeing to.

Emir was in the middle of a campaign in the  region, but withdrew from campaigning in the field to confront the renewed  challenge to the emerging caliphate and he drew plans at  to retake  the following spring. It is estimated that he headed a force of 40,000 men. The Romans sent out a call for help to their allies, the native, and to enemies the and the. Despite the king of the Visigoths,, sending a force of 500 warriors in order to help defend Carthage, the Romans were in disarray due to in-fighting and were sapped of much of their strength.

, enraged at having to retake a city that had not resisted the Roman take over, offered no terms except to surrender or die. The Emperor had also given his forces instructions of victory or death. The Romans left Carthage and attacked the Emir's army directly, but were defeated, and the Roman commander decided to wait out the siege behind the walls of Carthage to let the exhaust themselves, since he could continue to be resupplied from the sea. The defenders were faced with Hasan's overwhelming force deployed in ferocious attacks as his men made repeated attempts to scale the walls with ladders. They combined this land assault with an attack from the sea that caused the Roman commanders to withdraw from the city and subsequently resulted in the second and final great destruction of Carthage. The Romans retreated to the islands of, and  to further resist Muslim expansion.

was later murdered after a conspiracy at the hands of his co-commander, Tiberius Apsimarus. Tiberius Apsimarus then, instead of taking the step of returning to to fight the Muslims, sailed instead to. After a successful rebellion he rose to the throne as, and was later deposed by former emperor , now known as the Rhinotmetus.

The conquest of North Africa by the forces of was now nearly complete. Hasan's forces met with trouble from the tribe of  under. and they inflicted a serious defeat on him and drove him back to. However, in 702 Caliph strongly reinforced him. Now with a large army and the support of the settled population of, Hasan pushed forward. He decisively defeated in the, 85 miles (136 km) west of. He then developed the village of, ten miles from the destroyed Carthage.