Subduction

Subduction is a geological process that takes place at of  where one plate moves under another and is forced to sink due to high  into the. Regions where this process occurs are known as subduction zones. Rates of subduction are typically measured in centimeters per year, with the average rate of convergence being approximately two to eight centimeters per year along most plate boundaries.

Plates include both and. Stable subduction zones involve the oceanic of one plate sliding beneath the continental or oceanic lithosphere of another plate due to the higher density of the oceanic lithosphere. This means that the subducted lithosphere is always oceanic while the overriding lithosphere may or may not be oceanic. Subduction zones are sites that usually have a high rate of and s. Furthermore, subduction zones develop  of  and metamorphism in the subducting crust, whose exhumation is part of  and also leads to  in addition to collisional thickening.

General description
Subduction zones are sites of gravitational sinking of Earth's (the  plus the top non-convecting portion of the ). Subduction zones exist at convergent plate boundaries where one plate of converges with another plate. The descending, the subducting plate, is over-ridden by the leading edge of the other plate. The slab sinks at an angle of approximately twenty-five to forty-five degrees to Earth's surface. This sinking is driven by the temperature difference between the subducting oceanic lithosphere and the surrounding mantle, as the colder oceanic lithosphere has, on average, a greater density. At a depth of greater than 60 kilometers, the of the oceanic crust is converted to a metamorphic rock called. At that point, the density of the oceanic crust increases and provides additional negative (downwards force). It is at subduction zones that Earth's lithosphere, and,  layers and some trapped water are  into the deep mantle.

Earth is so far the only planet where subduction is known to occur. Subduction is the driving force behind, and without it, plate tectonics could not occur.

Oceanic subduction zones dive down into the mantle beneath 55000 km of convergent plate margins (Lallemand, 1999), almost equal to the cumulative 60000 km of mid-ocean ridges. Subduction zones burrow deeply but are imperfectly camouflaged, and and  can be used to study them. Not surprisingly, the shallowest portions of subduction zones are known best. Subduction zones are strongly asymmetric for the first several hundred kilometers of their descent. They start to go down at es. Their descents are marked by inclined zones of earthquakes that dip away from the trench beneath the volcanoes and extend down to the. Subduction zones are defined by the inclined array of earthquakes known as the after the two scientists who first identified this distinctive aspect. Subduction zone earthquakes occur at greater depths (up to 600 km) than elsewhere on Earth (typically less than 20 km depth); such deep earthquakes may be driven by deep phase transformations, thermal runaway, or dehydration embrittlement.

The subducting basalt and sediment are normally rich in minerals and clays. Additionally, large quantities of water are introduced into cracks and fractures created as the subducting slab bends downward. During the transition from basalt to eclogite, these hydrous materials break down, producing copious quantities of water, which at such great pressure and temperature exists as a. The supercritical water, which is hot and more buoyant than the surrounding rock, rises into the overlying mantle where it lowers the pressure in (and thus the melting temperature of) the mantle rock to the point of actual melting, generating. The magmas, in turn, rise (and become labeled s) because they are less dense than the rocks of the mantle. The mantle-derived magmas (which are basaltic in composition) can continue to rise, ultimately to Earth's surface, resulting in a volcanic eruption. The chemical composition of the erupting lava depends upon the degree to which the mantle-derived basalt interacts with (melts) Earth's crust and/or undergoes.

Above subduction zones, volcanoes exist in long chains called s. Volcanoes that exist along arcs tend to produce dangerous eruptions because they are rich in water (from the slab and sediments) and tend to be extremely explosive. ,, and are all examples of arc volcanoes. Arcs are also known to be associated with precious metals such as gold, silver and copper believed to be carried by water and concentrated in and around their host volcanoes in rock called "ore".

Initiation
Although the process of subduction as it occurs today is fairly well understood, its origin remains a matter of discussion and continuing study. Subduction initiation can occur spontaneously if denser oceanic lithosphere is able to founder and sink beneath adjacent oceanic or continental lithosphere; alternatively, existing plate motions can induce new subduction zones by forcing oceanic lithosphere to rupture and sink into the asthenosphere. Both models can eventually yield self-sustaining subduction zones, as oceanic crust is metamorphosed at great depth and becomes denser than the surrounding mantle rocks. Results from numerical models generally favor induced subduction initiation for most modern subduction zones, which is supported by geologic studies, but other shows the possibility of spontaneous subduction from inherent density differences between two plates at passive margins, and observations from the Izu-Bonin-Mariana subduction system are compatible with spontaneous subduction nucleation. Furthermore, subduction is likely to have spontaneously initiated at some point in Earth's history, as induced subduction nucleation requires existing plate motions, though an unorthodox proposal by A. Yin suggests that meteorite impacts may have contributed to subduction initiation on early Earth.

has hypothesized that plate tectonics could not happen without the laid down by bioforms at the edges of subduction zones. The massive weight of these sediments could be softening the underlying rocks, making them pliable enough to plunge.

Modern-style subduction
Modern-style subduction is characterized by low s and the associated formation of high-pressure low temperature rocks such as and. Likewise, rock assemblages called, associated to modern-style subduction, also indicate such conditions. s found in the provide evidence that modern-style subduction occurred at least as early as 1.8  ago in the. Nevertheless, the eclogite itself was produced by oceanic subdcution during the assembly of supercontinents at about 1.9–2.0 Ga.

is a rock typical for present-day subduction settings. Absence of blueschist older than reflect more  compositions of Earth's  during that period. These more magnesium-rich rocks metamorphose into at conditions when modern oceanic crust rocks metamorphose into blueschist. The ancient magnesium-rich rocks means that was once hotter, but not that subduction conditions were hotter. Previously, lack of pre-Neoproterozoic blueschist was thought to indicate a different type of subduction. Both lines of evidence refutes previous conceptions of modern-style subduction having been initiated in the 1.0 Ga ago.

Volcanic activity
es that occur above subduction zones, such as, and , lie at approximately one hundred kilometers from the trench in arcuate chains, hence the term. Two kinds of arcs are generally observed on Earth: that form on oceanic lithosphere (for example, the  and the  island arcs), and s such as the, that form along the coast of continents. Island arcs are produced by the subduction of oceanic lithosphere beneath another oceanic lithosphere (ocean-ocean subduction) while continental arcs formed during subduction of oceanic lithosphere beneath a continental lithosphere (ocean-continent subduction). An example of a volcanic arc having both island and continental arc sections is found behind the subduction zone in Alaska.

The arc magmatism occurs one hundred to two hundred kilometers from the trench and approximately one hundred kilometers above the subducting slab. This depth of arc generation is the consequence of the interaction between hydrous fluids, released from the subducting slab, and the arc mantle wedge that is hot enough to melt with the addition of water. It has also been suggested that the mixing of fluids from a subducted tectonic plate and melted sediment is already occurring at the top of the slab before any mixing with the mantle takes place.

Arcs produce about 25% of the total volume of magma produced each year on Earth (approximately thirty to thirty-five cubic kilometers), much less than the volume produced at mid-ocean ridges, and they contribute to the formation of new. Arc volcanism has the greatest impact on humans because many arc volcanoes lie above sea level and erupt violently. injected into the stratosphere during violent eruptions can cause rapid cooling of Earth's and affect air travel.

Earthquakes and tsunamis
The strains caused by plate convergence in subduction zones cause at least three types of earthquakes. Earthquakes mainly propagate in the cold subducting slab and define the. Seismicity shows that the slab can be tracked down to the upper mantle/lower mantle boundary (approximately six hundred kilometer depth).

Nine of the ten largest earthquakes of the last 100 years were subduction zone events, which included the, which, at M 9.5, was the largest earthquake ever recorded; the ; and the. The subduction of cold oceanic crust into the mantle depresses the local and causes a larger portion of Earth to deform in a more brittle fashion than it would in a normal geothermal gradient setting. Because earthquakes can occur only when a rock is deforming in a brittle fashion, subduction zones can cause large earthquakes. If such a quake causes rapid deformation of the sea floor, there is potential for s, such as the earthquake caused by subduction of the Indo-Australian Plate under the Euro-Asian Plate on December 26, 2004 that. Small tremors which cause small, nondamaging tsunamis, also occur frequently.

A study published in 2016 suggested a new parameter to determine a subduction zone's ability to generate mega-earthquakes. By examining subduction zone geometry and comparing the degree of curvature of the subducting plates in great historical earthquakes such as the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman and the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake, it was determined that the magnitude of earthquakes in subduction zones is inversely proportional to the degree of the fault's curvature, meaning that "the flatter the contact between the two plates, the more likely it is that mega-earthquakes will occur."

earthquakes occur when normal faults oceanward of the subduction zone are activated by flexure of the plate as it bends into the subduction zone. The is an example of this type of event. Displacement of the sea floor caused by this event generated a six-meter tsunami in nearby Samoa.

Anomalously deep events are a characteristic of subduction zones, which produce the deepest quakes on the planet. Earthquakes are generally restricted to the shallow, brittle parts of the crust, generally at depths of less than twenty kilometers. However, in subduction zones, quakes occur at depths as great as 700 km. These quakes define inclined zones of seismicity known as s which trace the descending lithosphere.

has helped detect subducted lithosphere,, deep in the mantle where there are no earthquakes. About one hundred slabs have been described in terms of depth and their timing and location of subduction. The great seismic discontinuities in the mantle, at 410 km depth and 670 km, are disrupted by the descent of cold slabs in deep subduction zones. Some subducted slabs seem to have difficulty penetrating the major that marks the boundary between upper mantle and lower mantle at a depth of about 670 kilometers. Other subducted oceanic plates have sunk all the way to the at 2890 km depth. Generally slabs decelerate during their descent into the mantle, from typically several cm/yr (up to ~10 cm/yr in some cases) at the subduction zone and in the uppermost mantle, to ~1 cm/yr in the lower mantle. This leads to either folding or stacking of slabs at those depths, visible as thickened slabs in. Below ~1700 km, there might be a limited acceleration of slabs due to lower viscosity as a result of inferred mineral phase changes until they approach and finally stall at the. Here the slabs are heated up by the ambient heat and are not detected anymore ~300 Myr after subduction.

Orogeny
Orogeny is the process of mountain building. Subducting plates can lead to orogeny by bringing oceanic islands, oceanic plateaus, and sediments to convergent margins. The material often does not subduct with the rest of the plate but instead is accreted (scraped off) to the continent, resulting in s. The collision of this oceanic material causes crustal thickening and mountain-building. The accreted material is often referred to as an, or prism. These accretionary wedges can be identified by (uplifted ocean crust consisting of sediments, pillow basalts, sheeted dykes, gabbro, and peridotite).

Subduction may also cause orogeny without bringing in oceanic material that collides with the overriding continent. When the subducting plate subducts at a shallow angle underneath a continent (something called "flat-slab subduction"), the subducting plate may have enough traction on the bottom of the continental plate to cause the upper plate to contract leading to folding, faulting, crustal thickening and mountain building. Flat-slab subduction causes mountain building and volcanism moving into the continent, away from the trench, and has been described in North America (i.e. Laramide orogeny), South America and East Asia.

The processes described above allow subduction to continue while mountain building happens progressively, which is in contrast to continent-continent collision orogeny, which often leads to the termination of subduction.

Subduction angle
Subduction typically occurs at a moderately steep angle right at the point of the convergent plate boundary. However, anomalous shallower angles of subduction are known to exist as well some that are extremely steep.
 * (subducting angle less than 30°) occurs when subducting lithosphere, called a slab, subducts nearly horizontally. The relatively flat slab can extend for hundreds of kilometers. That is abnormal, as the dense slab typically sinks at a much steeper angle directly at the subduction zone. Because subduction of slabs to depth is necessary to drive subduction zone volcanism (through the destabilization and dewatering of minerals and the resultant of the ), flat-slab subduction can be invoked to explain s. Flat-slab subduction is ongoing beneath part of the  causing segmentation of the  into four zones. The flat-slab subduction in northern Peru and the  region of Chile is believed to be the result of the subduction of two buoyant aseismic ridges, the  and the, respectively. Around  flat-slab subduction is attributed to the subduction of the , a . The  in the  of   is attributed to flat-slab subduction. Then, a broad volcanic gap appeared at the southwestern margin of North America, and deformation occurred much farther inland; it was during this time that the -cored mountain ranges of Colorado, Utah, Wyoming, South Dakota, and New Mexico came into being.  The most massive subduction zone earthquakes, so-called "megaquakes", have been found to occur in flat-slab subduction zones.
 * Steep-angle subduction (subducting angle greater than 70°) occurs in subduction zones where Earth's and lithosphere are old and thick and have, therefore, lost buoyancy. The steepest dipping subduction zone lies in the, which is also where the oceanic crust, of  age, is the oldest on Earth exempting s. Steep-angle subduction is, in contrast to flat-slab subduction, associated with  extension of crust making volcanic arcs and fragments of continental crust wander away from continents over geological times leaving behind a.

Importance
Subduction zones are important for several reasons:
 * 1) Subduction Zone Physics: Sinking of the oceanic  (sediments, crust, mantle), by contrast of  between the cold and old lithosphere and the hot asthenospheric mantle wedge, is the strongest force (but not the only one) needed to drive plate motion and is the dominant mode of.
 * 2) Subduction Zone Chemistry: The subducted sediments and crust dehydrate and release water-rich   into the overlying mantle, causing mantle melting and  of elements between surface and deep mantle reservoirs, producing island arcs and . Hot fluids in subduction zones also alter the mineral compositions of the subducting sediments and potentially the habitability of the sediments for microorganisms.
 * 3) Subduction zones drag down subducted oceanic sediments, oceanic crust, and mantle lithosphere that interact with the hot asthenospheric  from the over-riding plate to produce  series melts, ore deposits, and  continental crust.
 * 4) Subduction zones pose significant threats to lives, property, economic vitality, cultural and natural resources, and quality of life. The tremendous magnitudes of earthquakes or volcanic eruptions can also have knock-on effects with global impact.

Subduction zones have also been considered as possible in which the action of subduction itself would carry the material into the planetary, safely away from any possible influence on humanity or the surface environment. However, that method of disposal is currently banned by international agreement. Furthermore, plate subduction zones are associated with very large s, making the effects on using any specific site for disposal unpredictable and possibly adverse to the safety of longterm disposal.