Guilt-Shame-Fear

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In, the distinction between a guilt society (or guilt culture), shame society (also shame culture or honor-shame culture), and a fear society (or ) has been used to categorize different cultures. The differences can apply to how behavior is governed with respect to government laws, business rules, or social etiquette. This classification has been applied especially to societies, sorting them according to the emotions they use to control individuals (especially children) and maintaining, swaying them into norm obedience and conformity.


 * In a, control is maintained by creating and continually reinforcing the feeling of (and the expectation of  now or in the ) for certain condemned behaviors. The guilt-innocence world view focuses on law and punishment.  A person in this type of culture may ask, "Is my behavior fair or unfair?"  This type of culture also emphasizes individual.
 * In a shame society, the means of control is the of  and the complementary threat of . The shame-honor worldview seeks an "honor balance" and can lead to .  A person in this type of culture may ask, "Shall I look ashamed if I do X?" or "How people will look at me if I do Y?"  Shame cultures are typically based on the concepts of  and, and appearances are what count.
 * In a fear society, control is kept by the of retribution. Fear-Power worldview focuses on physical dominance.  A person in this culture may ask, "Will someone hurt me if I do this?"

The terminology were popularized by in , who described  as a "guilt culture" and  as a "shame culture".

Though the same person may emphasize different considerations depending on the situation, government and business projects that bring together people from different types of cultures may experience problems.

Guilt societies
In a guilt society, the primary method of is the  of feelings of  for behaviors that the individual believes to be undesirable. A prominent feature of guilt societies is the provision of sanctioned releases from guilt for certain behaviors, whether before or after the fact. There is opportunity in such cases for authority figures to derive power, monetary and/or other advantages, etc. by manipulating the conditions of guilt and the forgiveness of guilt.

characterizes the guilt society as follows:


 * Guilt is a feeling that arises when we violate the absolute standards of within us, when we violate our conscience. A person may suffer from guilt although no one else knows of his or her misdeed; this feeling of guilt is relieved by confessing the misdeed and making restitution. True guilt cultures rely on an internalized conviction of sin as the enforcer of good behavior, not, as shame cultures do, on external sanctions. Guilt cultures emphasize punishment and forgiveness as ways of restoring the moral order; shame cultures stress self-denial and humility as ways of restoring the social order. (Hiebert 1985, 213)

Geographical distribution

 * Guilt-Innocence: more associated with Islam, Christianity and Judaism
 * Shame-Honour: more associated with Eastern religions
 * Fear-Power: more associated with animist and tribal societies

England
is particularly notable as a shame culture, and this trait survived even after, which is typically a guilt culture. Other examples of shame culture under Christianity are the cultures of, and generally Christian.

China
In China, the concept of shame is widely accepted due to teachings. In , is quoted as saying:

"Lead the people with administrative injunctions and put them in their place with penal law, and they will avoid punishments but will be without a sense of shame. Lead them with excellence and put them in their place through roles and ritual practices, and in addition to developing a sense of shame, they will order themselves harmoniously."

Japan
The society of traditional was long held to be a good example of one in which shame is the primary agent of social control. The first book to cogently explain the workings of the Japanese society for the Western reader was  by. This book was produced under less than ideal circumstances since it was written during the early years of in an attempt to understand the people who had become such a powerful enemy of the West. Under the conditions of war, it was impossible to do in Japan.

Without being able to study in Japan, Benedict relied on newspaper clippings, histories, literature, films, and interviews of s. Her studies came to conclusions about Japanese culture and society that are still widely criticized today, both in America and Japan.

Romani
To the, though living as local minorities in mostly , the concept of lajav ("shame") is important, while the concept of bezax ("sin") does not have such significance.

Guilt society
In, a guilt society, or guilt culture, is the concept of a society in which the primary method of is the  of feelings of  for behaviors that the individual believes to be undesirable. It is possible to classify societies, specifically ones, according to the emotions they use to control individuals, swaying them into norm obedience and conformity. According to this classification, a guilt culture is an alternative to a. Shame cultures are typically based on the concepts of and, and appearances are what counts, as opposed to individual  in guilt cultures. The distinction was first coined by in , who described  as a "guilt culture" and  as a "shame culture".

is particularly notable as a shame culture, and this trait survived even after, which is typically a guilt culture. Other examples of shame culture under Christianity are the cultures of, and generally Christian.

Features
A prominent feature of guilt societies is the provision of sanctioned releases from guilt for certain behaviors, whether before or after the fact. There is opportunity in such cases for authority figures to derive power, monetary and/or other advantages, etc. by manipulating the conditions of guilt and the forgiveness of guilt.

characterizes the guilt society as follows:


 * Guilt is a feeling that arises when we violate the absolute standards of within us, when we violate our conscience. A person may suffer from guilt although no one else knows of his or her misdeed; this feeling of guilt is relieved by confessing the misdeed and making restitution. True guilt cultures rely on an internalized conviction of sin as the enforcer of good behavior, not, as shame cultures do, on external sanctions. Guilt cultures emphasize punishment and forgiveness as ways of restoring the moral order; shame cultures stress self-denial and humility as ways of restoring the social order. (Hiebert 1985, 213)

Shame society
In, a shame society, also called shame culture or honour-shame culture, is a society in which the primary device for gaining over children and maintaining  is the  of  and the complementary threat of. A shame society is contrasted with a, in which control is maintained by creating and continually reinforcing the feeling of (and the expectation of  now or in the ) for certain condemned behaviors, and with a , in which control is kept by the  of retribution.

Origin of term
The distinction between shame and guilt as methods of social control has long been recognized. The terms were popularized by in , who described  as a "guilt culture" and  as a "shame culture".

China
In China, the concept of shame is widely accepted due to teachings. In , is quoted as saying:

"Lead the people with administrative injunctions and put them in their place with penal law, and they will avoid punishments but will be without a sense of shame. Lead them with excellence and put them in their place through roles and ritual practices, and in addition to developing a sense of shame, they will order themselves harmoniously."

Japan
The society of traditional was long held to be a good example of one in which shame is the primary agent of social control. The first book to cogently explain the workings of the Japanese society for the Western reader was  by. This book was produced under less than ideal circumstances since it was written during the early years of in an attempt to understand the people who had become such a powerful enemy of the West. Under the conditions of war, it was impossible to do in Japan.

Without being able to study in Japan, Benedict relied on newspaper clippings, histories, literature, films, and interviews of s. Her studies came to conclusions about Japanese culture and society that are still widely criticized today, both in America and Japan.

Romani
To the, though living as local minorities in mostly or ic societies, the concept of lajav ("shame") is important, while the concept of bezax ("sin") does not have such significance.

Culture of fear
Popularized by the American sociologist, culture of fear (or climate of fear) is the concept that people may incite in the general public to achieve political or workplace goals through.

In politics
Nazi leader explains how people can be made fearful and to support a war they otherwise would oppose:

"The people don't want, but they can always be brought to the bidding of the leaders. This is easy. All you have to do is tell them they are being attacked, and  the pacifists for lack of patriotism and for exposing the country to danger.  It works the same in every country."

In her book "State and Opposition in Military Brazil," Maria Helena Moreira Alves found a "culture of fear" was implemented as part of. She used the term to describe methods implemented by the apparatus of Brazil in its effort to equate political participation with risk of  and.

Cassação (English: cassation) is one such mechanism used to punish members of the military by legally declaring them dead. This enhanced the potential for political control through intensifying the culture of fear as a deterrent to opposition.

Alves found the changes of the of 1969, as beginning the use of ", physical, political control, and strict " to establish a "culture of fear" in Brazil. The three psychological components of the culture of fear included silence through censorship, sense of isolation, and a "generalized belief that all channels of opposition were closed." A "feeling of complete ," prevailed, in addition to "withdrawal from opposition activity."

Former US National Security Advisor argues that the use of the term  was intended to generate a culture of fear deliberately because it "obscures reason, intensifies emotions and makes it easier for  politicians to mobilize the public on behalf of the policies they want to pursue".

, a former professor of Sociology and writer for  magazine, says that today's culture of fear did not begin with the collapse of the. Long before September 11, he argues, public s were widespread – on everything from to mobile phones, from  to. Like Durodié, Furedi argues that perceptions of risk, ideas about safety and controversies over health, the environment and technology have little to do with science or. Rather, they are shaped by cultural assumptions about human. Furedi say that "we need a grown-up discussion about our post-September 11 world, based on a reasoned evaluation of all the available evidence rather than on fears for the future.

British academics Gabe Mythen and Sandra Walklate argue that following terrorist attacks in New York, the Pentagon, Madrid, and London, government agencies developed a discourse of "new terrorism" in a cultural climate of. UK researchers argued that these processes reduced notions of and created the  image of a non-white "terroristic other" that has negative consequences for ethnic minority groups in the UK.

In his 2004 BBC documentary film series, , subtitled The Rise of the Politics of Fear, the journalist argues that politicians have used our fears to increase their power and control over society. Though he does not use the term "culture of fear," what Curtis describes in his film is a reflection of this concept. He looks at the American movement and its depiction of the  first from the  and then from radical s. Curtis insists there has been a largely illusory fear of terrorism in the west since the  and that politicians such as  and  had stumbled on a new force to restore their power and authority; using the fear of an organised "web of evil" from which they could protect their people. Curtis's film castigated the media, security forces and the for expanding their power in this way. The film features, then Director of the International Centre for Security Analysis, and Senior in the International Policy Institute, , saying that to call this network an "invention" would be too strong a term, but he asserts that it probably does not exist and is largely a " of our own worst fears, and that what we see is a fantasy that's been created."

In the workplace
Ashforth discussed potentially destructive sides of and identified what he referred to as : leaders who exercise a tyrannical style of management, resulting in a climate of fear in the workplace. Partial or intermittent can create an effective climate of fear and. When employees get the sense that bullies are tolerated, a climate of fear may be the result. Several studies have confirmed a relationship between bullying, on one hand, and an autocratic leadership and an authoritarian way of settling or dealing with disagreements, on the other. An may create a climate of fear, with little or no room for dialogue and with complaining being considered futile.

In a study of members, approximately one in five workers reported having considered  the workplace as a result of witnessing bullying taking place. Rayner explained the figures by pointing to the presence of a climate of fear in which employees considered reporting to be unsafe, where bullies had been tolerated previously despite management knowing of the presence of bullying. Individual differences in sensitivity to, and  have been studied under the premises of  and have also been. A culture of fear at the workplace runs contrary to the "key principles" established by for managers to transform business effectiveness. One of his is to drive out fear in order to allow everyone to work effectively for the company.

Impact of the media
The consumption of mass media has had a profound effect on instilling the fear of terrorism in the United States, though acts of terror are a rare phenomenon. Beginning in the 1960s, George Gerbner and his colleagues have accelerated the study of the relationship that exists between and the. According to Gerbner, television and other forms of mass media create a worldview that is reflective of “recurrent media messages”, rather than one that is based on reality. Many Americans are exposed to some form of media on a daily basis, with television and social media platforms being the most used methods to receive both local and international news, and as such this is how most receive news and details that center around violent crime and acts of terror. With the rise in use of smartphones and social media, people are bombarded with constant news updates, and able to read stories related to terrorism, stories that come from all corners of the globe. Media fuels fear of terrorism and other threats to national security, all of which have negative psychological effects on the population, such as depression, anxiety, and insomnia. Politicians conduct interviews, televised or otherwise, and utilize their social media platforms immediately after violent crimes and terrorist acts, to further cement the fear of terrorism into the minds of their constituents.