C Sharp

C# (pronounced see sharp, like the musical note, but written with the ) is a general-purpose, encompassing , , , , , ,  (-based), and  programming disciplines. It was developed around 2000 by as part of its  initiative, and later approved as an  by  (ECMA-334) and  (ISO/IEC 23270:2018). is the name of the free and open-source project to develop a compiler and runtime for the language. C# is one of the programming languages designed for the (CLI).

C# was designed by, and its development team is currently led by. The most recent version is 8.0, which was released in 2019 alongside version 16.3.

Design goals
The Ecma standard lists these design goals for C#:


 * The language is intended to be a simple, modern, general-purpose, language.
 * The language, and implementations thereof, should provide support for software engineering principles such as checking, array, detection of attempts to use s, and automatic . Software robustness, durability, and programmer productivity are important.
 * The language is intended for use in developing suitable for deployment in distributed environments.
 * Portability is very important for source code and programmers, especially those already familiar with and.
 * Support for is very important.
 * C# is intended to be suitable for writing applications for both hosted and s, ranging from the very large that use sophisticated s, down to the very small having dedicated functions.
 * Although C# applications are intended to be economical with regard to memory and requirements, the language was not intended to compete directly on performance and size with C or assembly language.

History
During the development of the .NET Framework, the were originally written using a  compiler system called "Simple Managed C" (SMC). In January 1999, formed a team to build a new language at the time called Cool, which stood for " Object Oriented Language". Microsoft had considered keeping the name "Cool" as the final name of the language, but chose not to do so for trademark reasons. By the time the .NET project was publicly announced at the July 2000, the language had been renamed C#, and the class libraries and runtime had been ported to C#.

Hejlsberg is C#'s principal designer and lead architect at Microsoft, and was previously involved with the design of, (formerly CodeGear Delphi, Inprise Delphi and Borland Delphi), and. In interviews and technical papers he has stated that flaws in most major programming languages (e.g., , , and ) drove the fundamentals of the (CLR), which, in turn, drove the design of the C# language itself.

, who created the programming language in 1994, and, a co-founder of , the originator of Java, called C# an "imitation" of Java; Gosling further said that "[C# is] sort of Java with reliability, productivity and security deleted." Klaus Kreft and Angelika Langer (authors of a C++ streams book) stated in a blog post that "Java and C# are almost identical programming languages. Boring repetition that lacks innovation," "Hardly anybody will claim that Java or C# are revolutionary programming languages that changed the way we write programs," and "C# borrowed a lot from Java - and vice versa. Now that C# supports  and unboxing, we'll have a very similar feature in Java." In July 2000, Hejlsberg said that C# is "not a Java clone" and is "much closer to C++" in its design.

Since the release of C# 2.0 in November 2005, the C# and Java languages have evolved on increasingly divergent trajectories, becoming two very different languages. One of the first major departures came with the addition of to both languages, with vastly different implementations. C# makes use of to provide "first-class" generic objects that can be used like any other class, with  performed at class-load time. Furthermore, C# has added several major features to accommodate functional-style programming, culminating in the extensions released with C# 3.0 and its supporting framework of, s, and s.  These features enable C# programmers to use functional programming techniques, such as , when it is advantageous to their application. The LINQ extensions and the functional imports help developers reduce the amount of that is included in common tasks like querying a database, parsing an xml file, or searching through a data structure, shifting the emphasis onto the actual program logic to help improve readability and maintainability.

C# used to have a called Andy (named after Anders Hejlsberg). It was retired on January 29, 2004.

C# was originally submitted to the ISO subcommittee JTC 1/SC 22 for review, under ISO/IEC 23270:2003, was withdrawn and was then approved under ISO/IEC 23270:2006.

Name
Microsoft first used the name C# in 1988 for a variant of the C language designed for incremental compilation. That project was not completed but the name lives on.

The name "C sharp" was inspired by the musical notation where a indicates that the written note should be made a  higher in. This is similar to the language name of, where "++" indicates that a variable should be incremented by 1 after being evaluated. The sharp symbol also resembles a of four "+" symbols (in a two-by-two grid), further implying that the language is an increment of C++.

Due to technical limitations of display (standard fonts, browsers, etc.) and the fact that the sharp symbol is not present on most s, the   was chosen to approximate the sharp symbol in the written name of the programming language. This convention is reflected in the ECMA-334 C# Language Specification.

The "sharp" suffix has been used by a number of other .NET languages that are variants of existing languages, including (a .NET language also designed by Microsoft that is derived from Java 1.1),  (from ), and the  language. The original implementation of was called Eiffel#, a name retired since the full  language is now supported. The suffix has also been used for, such as (a .NET  for  and other  libraries) and  (a wrapper for ).

New features

 * C# 2.0


 * Generics
 * Partial types
 * s
 * Iterators
 * Nullable value types
 * Getter/setter separate accessibility
 * Method group conversions (delegates)
 * Co- and Contra-variance for delegates
 * Static classes
 * Delegate inference


 * C# 3.0


 * Implicitly typed local variables
 * Object and collection initializers
 * Auto-Implemented properties
 * Anonymous types
 * s
 * Query expressions
 * Lambda expression
 * Expression trees
 * Partial methods


 * C# 4.0


 * Dynamic binding
 * Named and optional arguments
 * Generic co- and contravariance
 * Embedded interop types ("NoPIA")


 * C# 5.0


 * Caller info attributes
 * Caller info attributes


 * C# 6.0


 * Compiler-as-a-service
 * Import of static type members into namespace
 * Exception filters
 * Await in catch/finally blocks
 * Auto property initializers
 * Default values for getter-only properties
 * Expression-bodied members
 * Null propagator (, succinct null checking)
 * String interpolation
 * nameof operator
 * Dictionary initializer


 * C# 7.0


 * Inline out variable declaration
 * Tuple types and tuple literals
 * Deconstruction
 * s
 * Digit separators
 * Binary literals
 * Ref returns and locals
 * Generalized async return types
 * Expression bodied constructors and finalizers
 * Expression bodied getters and setters
 * Throw can also be used as expression
 * Throw can also be used as expression


 * C# 7.1


 * Async main
 * Default literal expressions
 * Inferred tuple element names


 * C# 7.2


 * Reference semantics with value types
 * Non-trailing named arguments
 * Leading underscores in numeric literals
 * private protected access modifier


 * C# 7.3


 * Accessing fixed fields without pinning
 * Reassigning ref local variables
 * Using initializers on stackalloc arrays
 * Using fixed statements with any type that supports a pattern
 * Using additional generic constraints


 * C# 8.0


 * readonly struct members
 * default interface members
 * switch expressions
 * Property, Tuple, and positional patterns
 * using declarations
 * static local functions
 * Disposable ref struct
 * Nullable reference types
 * Indices and Ranges
 * Null-coalescing assignment
 * Async Streams

Syntax
The core syntax of C# language is similar to that of other C-style languages such as C, C++ and Java. In particular:


 * Semicolons are used to denote the end of a statement.
 * are used to group statements. Statements are commonly grouped into methods (functions), methods into classes, and classes into.
 * Variables are assigned using an, but compared using.
 * are used with, both to declare them and to get a value at a given index in one of them.

Distinguishing features
Some notable features of C# that distinguish it from C, C++, and Java where noted, are:

Portability
By design, C# is the programming language that most directly reflects the underlying (CLI). Most of its intrinsic types correspond to value-types implemented by the CLI framework. However, the language specification does not state the code generation requirements of the compiler: that is, it does not state that a C# compiler must target a Common Language Runtime, or generate (CIL), or generate any other specific format. Theoretically, a C# compiler could generate machine code like traditional compilers of C++ or.

Typing
C# supports strongly typed implicit variable declarations with the keyword, and implicitly typed arrays with the keyword   followed by a collection initializer.

C# supports a strict,. Statements that take conditions, such as  and , require an expression of a type that implements the   operator, such as the Boolean type. While C++ also has a Boolean type, it can be freely converted to and from integers, and expressions such as  require only that   is convertible to bool, allowing   to be an int, or a pointer. C# disallows this "integer meaning true or false" approach, on the grounds that forcing programmers to use expressions that return exactly  can prevent certain types of programming mistakes such as   (use of assignment   instead of equality  ).

C# is more than C++. The only s by default are those that are considered safe, such as widening of integers. This is enforced at compile-time, during, and, in some cases, at runtime. No implicit conversions occur between Booleans and integers, nor between enumeration members and integers (except for literal 0, which can be implicitly converted to any enumerated type). Any user-defined conversion must be explicitly marked as explicit or implicit, unlike C++ s and conversion operators, which are both implicit by default.

C# has explicit support for in generic types, unlike C++ which has some degree of support for contravariance simply through the semantics of return types on virtual methods.

members are placed in their own.

The C# language does not allow for global variables or functions. All methods and members must be declared within classes. Static members of public classes can substitute for global variables and functions.

Local variables cannot variables of the enclosing block, unlike C and C++.

Metaprogramming
via C# attributes is part of the language. Many of these attributes duplicate the functionality of GCC's and VisualC++'s platform-dependent preprocessor directives.

Methods and functions
A method in C# is a member of a class that can be invoked as a function (a sequence of instructions), rather than the mere value-holding capability of a class property. As in other syntactically similar languages, such as C++ and, the signature of a method is a declaration comprising in order: any optional scope modifier keywords (such as ), the explicit specification of its return type (such as  , or the keyword   if no value is returned), the name of the method, and finally, a parenthesized sequence of comma-separated parameter specifications, each consisting of a parameter's type, its formal name and optionally, a default value to be used whenever none is provided. Certain specific kinds of methods, such as those that simply get or set a class property by return value or assignment, do not require a full signature, but in the general case, the definition of a class includes the full signature declaration of its methods.

Like C++, and unlike Java, C# programmers must use the scope modifier keyword  to allow methods to be overridden by subclasses.

Extension methods in C# allow programmers to use static methods as if they were methods from a class's method table, allowing programmers to add methods to an object that they feel should exist on that object and its derivatives.

The type  allows for run-time method binding, allowing for JavaScript-like method calls and run-time object composition.

C# has support for strongly-typed function pointers via the keyword. Like the Qt framework's pseudo-C++ signal and slot, C# has semantics specifically surrounding publish-subscribe style events, though C# uses delegates to do so.

C# offers Java-like  method calls, via the attribute , and has support for  via the keyword.

Property
C# provides as  for a common pattern in which a pair of methods,  encapsulate operations on a single  of a class. No redundant method signatures for the getter/setter implementations need be written, and the property may be accessed using attribute syntax rather than more verbose method calls.

Namespace
A C#  provides the same level of code isolation as a Java   or a C++, with very similar rules and features to a. Namespaces can be imported with the "using" syntax.

Memory access
In C#, memory address pointers can only be used within blocks specifically marked as unsafe, and programs with unsafe code need appropriate permissions to run. Most object access is done through safe object references, which always either point to a "live" object or have the well-defined value; it is impossible to obtain a reference to a "dead" object (one that has been garbage collected), or to a random block of memory. An unsafe pointer can point to an instance of an 'unmanaged' value type that does not contain any references to garbage-collected objects, array, string, or a block of stack-allocated memory. Code that is not marked as unsafe can still store and manipulate pointers through the  type, but it cannot dereference them.

Managed memory cannot be explicitly freed; instead, it is automatically garbage collected. Garbage collection addresses the problem of s by freeing the programmer of responsibility for releasing memory that is no longer needed.

Exception
are not present in C# (in contrast to Java). This has been a conscious decision based on the issues of scalability and versionability.

Polymorphism
Unlike, C# does not support , although a class can implement any number of. This was a design decision by the language's lead architect to avoid complication and simplify architectural requirements throughout CLI. When implementing multiple interfaces that contain a method with the same signature, i. e. two methods with the same name and taking parameters of the same type in the same order, C# allows implementing each method depending on which interface that method is being called through or, like Java, allows implementing the method once, and having that be the one invocation on a call through any of the class's interfaces.

However, unlike, C# supports. Only the most commonly overloaded operators in C++ may be overloaded in C#.

Language Integrated Query (LINQ)
C# has the ability to utilize through the .NET Framework. A developer can query any  object, XML documents, an ADO.NET dataset, and a SQL database. Using LINQ in C# brings advantages like support, strong filtering capabilities, type safety with compile error checking ability, and consistency for querying data over a variety of sources. There are several different language structures that can be utilized with C# with LINQ and they are query expressions, lambda expressions, anonymous types, implicitly typed variables, extension methods, and object initializers.

Functional programming
Though primarily an imperative language, C# 2.0 offered limited support for functional programming through and closures in the form of anonymous delegates. C# 3.0 expanded support for functional programming with the introduction of a lightweight syntax for lambda expressions, extension methods (an affordance for modules), and a syntax in the form of a "query comprehension" language. C# 7.0 adds features typically found in functional languages like tuples and pattern matching.

Common type system
C# has a unified type system. This unified type system is called (CTS).

A unified type system implies that all types, including primitives such as integers, are subclasses of the class. For example, every type inherits a method.

Categories of data types
CTS separates data types into two categories:


 * 1)  Reference types
 * 2)  Value types

Instances of value types do not have referential identity nor referential comparison semantics - equality and inequality comparisons for value types compare the actual data values within the instances, unless the corresponding operators are overloaded. Value types are derived from, always have a default value, and can always be created and copied. Some other limitations on value types are that they cannot derive from each other (but can implement interfaces) and cannot have an explicit default (parameterless) constructor. Examples of value types are all primitive types, such as (a signed 32-bit integer),  (a 32-bit IEEE floating-point number),  (a 16-bit Unicode code unit), and  (identifies a specific point in time with nanosecond precision). Other examples are (enumerations) and  (user defined structures).

In contrast, reference types have the notion of referential identity - each instance of a reference type is inherently distinct from every other instance, even if the data within both instances is the same. This is reflected in default equality and inequality comparisons for reference types, which test for referential rather than structural equality, unless the corresponding operators are overloaded (such as the case for ). In general, it is not always possible to create an instance of a reference type, nor to copy an existing instance, or perform a value comparison on two existing instances, though specific reference types can provide such services by exposing a public constructor or implementing a corresponding interface (such as or ). Examples of reference types are (the ultimate base class for all other C# classes),  (a string of Unicode characters), and  (a base class for all C# arrays).

Both type categories are extensible with user-defined types.

Boxing and unboxing
Boxing is the operation of converting a value-type object into a value of a corresponding reference type. Boxing in C# is implicit.

Unboxing is the operation of converting a value of a reference type (previously boxed) into a value of a value type. Unboxing in C# requires an explicit. A boxed object of type T can only be unboxed to a T (or a nullable T).

Example:

Libraries
The C# specification details a minimum set of types and class libraries that the compiler expects to have available. In practice, C# is most often used with some implementation of the (CLI), which is standardized as ECMA-335 Common Language Infrastructure (CLI).

In addition to the standard CLI specifications, there are many commercial and community class libraries that build on top of the .NET framework libraries to provide additional functionality.

Examples
The following is a very simple C# program, a version of the classic "" example:

This code will display this text in the console window:

Hello, world!

Each line has a purpose:

The above line imports all types in the  namespace. For example, the  class used later in the source code is defined in the   namespace, meaning it can be used without supplying the full name of the type (which includes the namespace).

Above is a definition. Everything between the following pair of braces describes.

This declares the class member method where the program begins execution. The .NET runtime calls the method. (Note: may also be called from elsewhere, like any other method, e.g. from another method of .) The  makes the method accessible without an instance of. Each console application's entry point must be declared. Otherwise, the program would require an instance, but any instance would require a program. To avoid that irresolvable, C# compilers processing s (like that above) report an error, if there is no method. The keyword declares that  has no.

This line writes the output. is a static class in the namespace. It provides an interface to the standard input, output, and error streams for console applications. The program calls the method, which displays on the console a line with the argument, the string.

A example:

This example is similar to the previous example, except that it generates a that contains the message "Hello, World!" instead of writing it to the console.

Another useful library is the  library, which is used to programmatically draw images. For example: This will create an image that is identical to that stored in "Image.png".

Standardization and licensing
In August 2001, Microsoft Corporation, Hewlett-Packard and Intel Corporation co-sponsored the submission of specifications for C# as well as the to the standards organization. In December 2001, ECMA released ECMA-334 C# Language Specification. C# became an standard in 2003 (ISO/IEC 23270:2003 - Information technology — Programming languages — C#). ECMA had previously adopted equivalent specifications as the 2nd edition of C#, in December 2002.

In June 2005, ECMA approved edition 3 of the C# specification, and updated ECMA-334. Additions included partial classes, anonymous methods, nullable types, and (somewhat similar to C++ ).

In July 2005, ECMA submitted to ISO/IEC JTC 1, via the latter's Fast-Track process, the standards and related TRs. This process usually takes 6–9 months.

The C# language definition and the are standardized under  and  standards that provide  protection from patent claims.

Microsoft has agreed not to sue open source developers for violating patents in non-profit projects for the part of the framework that is covered by the OSP. Microsoft has also agreed not to enforce patents relating to products against Novell's paying customers with the exception of a list of products that do not explicitly mention C#, .NET or Novell's implementation of .NET. However, Novell maintains that Mono does not infringe any Microsoft patents. Microsoft has also made a specific agreement not to enforce patent rights related to the, which depends on Mono, provided it is obtained through.

Implementations
Microsoft is leading the development of the reference C# compiler and set of tools, previously codenamed "". The compiler, which is entirely written in (C#), has been opened up and functionality surfaced as APIs. It is thus enabling developers to create refactoring and diagnostics tools.

Other C# compilers (some of which include an implementation of the and .NET class libraries):
 * The project provides an open-source C# compiler, a complete open-source implementation of the Common Language Infrastructure including the required framework libraries as they appear in the ECMA specification, and a nearly complete implementation of the Microsoft proprietary .NET class libraries up to .NET 3.5. As of Mono 2.6, no plans exist to implement ;  is planned for a later release; and there are only partial implementations of  and.
 * The project (now discontinued) also provided an open-source C# compiler, a nearly complete implementation of the Common Language Infrastructure including the required framework libraries as they appear in the ECMA specification, and subset of some of the remaining Microsoft proprietary .NET class libraries up to .NET 2.0 (those not documented or included in the ECMA specification, but included in Microsoft's standard .NET Framework distribution).
 * Microsoft's, codenamed "Rotor", provides a implementation of the CLR runtime and a C# compiler licensed for educational and research use only, and a subset of the required  framework libraries in the ECMA specification (up to C# 2.0, and supported on Windows XP only).
 * provides tools to develop cross-platform applications for common mobile and desktop operating systems, using C# as a codebase and compiling to native code.

Mono is a common choice for game engines due to its cross-platform nature. The uses Mono C# as its primary scripting language. The has implemented an optional Mono C# module thanks to a donation of $24,000 from Microsoft.