Stone

Stone structures, or "s", have been erected by humanity for thousands of years. Many of these structures were built around the same time, the 3rd millennium BC.

Some of the better-known ones:


 * s
 * s
 * s

Megalith
A megalith is a large that has been used to construct a structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones. The word megalithic describes structures made of such large stones without the use of mortar or concrete, representing periods of characterised by such constructions. For later periods, the word , with an overlapping meaning, is more likely to be used.

The word megalith comes from the μέγας ( mégas, meaning "great") and λίθος (transliteration líthos meaning "stone"). Megalith also denotes one or more rocks hewn in definite shapes for special purposes. It has been used to describe buildings built by people from many parts of the world living in many different periods. The term was first used in reference to Stonehenge by in 1849. A variety of large stones are seen as megaliths, with the most widely known megaliths not being s. The construction of these structures took place mainly in the period (though earlier  examples are known) and continued into the  and the.

Early stone complexes in eastern Turkey
At a number of sites in eastern Turkey, large ceremonial complexes from the have been discovered. They belong to the incipient phases of and. Large circular structures involving carved megalithic s are a typical feature; e.g. at and. Although these structures are the most ancient megalithic structures known so far, it is not clear that any of the European megalithic traditions (see below) are actually derived from them. At Göbekli Tepe, four stone circles have been excavated from an estimated 20. Some measure up to 30 metres across. As well as human figures, the stones carry a variety of carved reliefs depicting boars, foxes, lions, birds, snakes and scorpions.

Middle Eastern megaliths
and have been found in large areas of the Middle East starting at the  border in the north of  close to, southwards down to. They can be encountered in, Syria, , , , and. The largest concentration can be found in southern Syria and along the, however they are being threatened with destruction. They date from the late Chalcolithic/Early Bronze Age. Megaliths have also been found on and  in, at  in.

A semicircular arrangement of megaliths was found in Israel at, a site that is now under the sea. It is a very early example, dating from the.

The most concentrated occurrence of dolmens in particular is in a large area on both sides of the, with greater predominance on the eastern side. They occur first and foremost on the, the , and in Jordan, which probably has the largest concentration of dolmen in the Middle East. In Saudi Arabia, only very few dolmen have been identified so far in the. They seem, however, to re-emerge in Yemen in small numbers, and thus could indicate a continuous tradition related to those of and.

The standing stone has a very ancient tradition in the Middle East, dating back from n times. Although not always 'megalithic' in the true sense, they occur throughout the, and can reach 5 metres or more in some cases (such as in Jordan). This phenomenon can also be traced through many passages from the, such as those related to , the grandson of , who poured oil over a stone that he erected after his famous dream in which angels climbed to heaven (Genesis 28:10-22). Jacob is also described as putting up stones at other occasions, whereas erected twelve pillars symbolizing the tribes of Israel. The tradition of venerating (standing) stones continued in times and is reflected in, e.g., the Islamic rituals surrounding the  and nearby pillars. Related phenomena, such as cupholes, rock-cut tombs and circles also occur in the Middle East.

European megaliths
The most common type of megalithic construction in Europe is the – a chamber consisting of upright stones (s) with one or more large flat capstones forming a roof. Many of these, though by no means all, contain human remains, but it is debatable whether use as burial sites was their primary function. The megalithic structures in the northwest of France are believed to be the oldest in Europe based on radiocarbon dating. Though generally known as dolmens, the term most accepted by archaeologists is portal tomb. However many local names exist, such as anta in and Portugal, stazzone in, hunebed in the Netherlands, Hünengrab in Germany, dysse in Denmark, and cromlech in. It is assumed that most portal tombs were originally covered by earthen mounds.

The second-most-common tomb type is the. It normally consists of a square, circular, or cruciform chamber with a slabbed or roof, accessed by a long, straight passageway, with the whole structure covered by a circular mound of earth. Sometimes it is also surrounded by an external stone kerb. Prominent examples include the sites of and  in Ireland,  in, and  in France.

The third tomb type is a diverse group known as s. These are axially arranged chambers placed under elongated mounds. The Irish s, British s, and German Steinkisten belong to this group.

Another type of megalithic monument, the single standing stone, or as it is known in France, is very common throughout Europe, where some 50,000 examples have been noted. Some of these are thought to have an astronomical function as a marker or foresight. In some areas, long and complex alignments of such stones exist, the largest known example being located at in, France.

In parts of Britain and Ireland a relatively common type of megalithic construction is the, of which examples include , , and. These, too, display evidence of astronomical alignments, both solar and lunar. Stonehenge, for example, is famous for its alignment. Examples of stone circles are also found in the rest of Europe. The circle at, near Limerick in Ireland has been dated to the Beaker period, approximately contemporaneous with Stonehenge. The stone circles are assumed to be of later date than the tombs, straddling the and the s.

Tombs
Megalithic tombs are aboveground burial chambers, built of large stone slabs (megaliths) laid on edge and covered with earth or other, smaller stones. They are a type of, and the term is used to describe the structures built across , the Mediterranean, and neighbouring regions, mostly during the period, by Neolithic farming communities. They differ from the contemporary s through their structural use of stone.

There is a huge variety of megalithic tombs. The free-standing single chamber s and s found in, Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Netherlands, Sweden, , and elsewhere consist of a large flat stone supported by three, four, or more standing stones. They were covered by a stone or earth.

In Italy, dolmens can be found especially in. There are more than 100 dolmen dating to the Neolithic (3500–2700 BC) and the most famous is called Dolmen di Sa Coveccada (near ). During the, the built c. 800 , a type of megalithic  that can be found throughout  with different structures. The earliest megalithic tombs in Sardinia are the circular graves of the so-called, also found in , and eastern Spain.

Dolmen are also in Apulia and in Sicily. In this latter region, they are small structures located in Mura Pregne ', Sciacca ', Monte Bubbonia ', Butera (Caltanissetta), Cava Lazzaro ', Cava dei Servi , Avola (Siracusa), in. Dating to the early Bronze Age (2200–1800 BC), the prehistoric Sicilian buildings were covered by a circular mound of earth. In the dolmen of Cava dei Servi, the archaeologists found numerous human bone fragments and some splinters of Castelluccian ceramics (Early Bronze Age) which confirmed the burial purpose of the artefact.

Examples with outer areas, not used for burial, are also known. The s of southwest and northern Ireland, the s of southwest England and the s of the  region in France share many internal features, although the links between them are not yet fully understood. That they often have antechambers or forecourts is thought to imply a desire on the part of the builders to emphasize a special or physical separation of the dead from the living.

The s of, Ireland's Valley, and north Wales are even more complex and impressive, with cross-shaped arrangements of chambers and passages. The workmanship on the stone blocks at for example is unknown elsewhere in northwest Europe at the time.

Megalithic tombs appear to have been used by communities for the long-term deposition of the remains of their dead, and some seem to have undergone alteration and enlargement. The organization and effort required to erect these large stones suggest that the societies concerned placed great emphasis on the proper treatment of their dead. The significance of the tombs is supported by the presence of  carved into the stones at some sites. Hearths and deposits of pottery and animal bone found by archaeologists around some tombs also implies that some form of burial feast or sacrificial rites took place there.

Further examples of megalithic tombs include the stalled cairn at in Orkney and the passage grave at  on. There are also extensive grave sites with up to 60 megaliths at and  on the Danish island of. Despite its name, the in  was not a tomb but rather a sanctuary.

Other structures
In association with the megalithic constructions across Europe, there are often large of various designs – ditches and banks (like the ), broad terraces, circular enclosures known as, and frequently artificial mounds such as  in England and  in  (the prehistoric step pyramid). A lot of spirals are found through of Sardinia: the best known is Perda Pinta of.

It seems that spirals were an important motif for the megalith builders (see ). They have been found carved into megalithic structures all over Europe, along with other symbols such as lozenges, eye-patterns, zigzags in various configurations, and s. While not a written script in the modern sense of the term, these symbols are considered to have conveyed meaning to their creators, and are remarkably consistent across the whole of Europe.

Spread of megalithic architecture in Europe
In Europe megaliths are, in general, constructions erected during the or late stone age and  or Copper Age (4500–1500 BC). The megalithic structures of are believed to be the oldest in Europe. Perhaps the most famous megalithic structure is in England. In Sardinia, in addition to dolmens, menhirs and circular graves there are also more than 8000 megalithic structure made by a Nuragic civilisation, called : buildings similar to towers (sometimes with really complex structures) made using only rocks. They are often near or the other megalithic monuments.

The French was the first to describe the. introduced the terms ' and ', both taken from the, into antiquarian terminology. He mistakenly interpreted megaliths as gallic tombs. In Britain, the s and  conducted early research into megaliths. In 1805, published a book called Monuments celtiques, ou recherches sur le culte des Pierres, précédées d'une notice sur les Celtes et sur les Druides, et suivies d'Etymologie celtiques, where he proposed a ic stone cult. This unproven connection between and megaliths has haunted the public imagination ever since. In Belgium, there are the at Wéris, a little town situated in the. In the Netherlands, megalithic structures can be found in the northeast of the country, mostly in the province of. is a of the  neolithic complex in Ireland, dating from c. 3500–3000 BC. It contains more than a third of the total number of examples of  in all Europe, with over 200 decorated stones found during excavations.

Mesolithic

 * c. 9500 BC: Construction in Asia Minor ; from proto- or else a yet-to-be-discovered culture (the oldest religious structure in the world).
 * Submerged by around 7400 BC: a 12m long probably weighing around 15000 kg found 40m under water in the  south-west of  whose function is unknown.
 * 7th or 8th millennium BC: Problematic date (by ) of Quinta da Queimada Menhir in western Algarve ; "a very early period of megalithic activity in the Algarve, older than in the rest of Europe and in parallel, to some extent, with the famous Anatolian site of Göbekli Tepe"

Neolithic

 * c. 7000 BC: Construction in Israel.
 * c. 6000 BC: Constructions in Portugal
 * c. 5000 BC: Emergence of the Atlantic period, the age of agriculture along the western shores of Europe during the sixth millennium BC pottery culture of, Spain near by, perhaps precedent from Africa.
 * c. 4850 BC: Constructions in ( temples).
 * c. 4800 BC: Constructions in  and.
 * c. 4500 BC: Constructions in south.
 * c. 4300 BC: Constructions in south.
 * c. 4000 BC: Constructions in Brittany, Portugal , France (central and southern), , Spain , England and , Constructions in Andalusia, Spain , Construction in Israel c. 4000~3000 BC: Constructions in the rest of the proto-Canaanite , e.g.  and.
 * c. 3700 BC: Constructions in Ireland ( and elsewhere).
 * c. 3600 BC: Constructions in England ( and ), and ( and  temples).
 * c. 3500 BC: Constructions in Spain ( and ), Ireland (south-west), France ( and the north), Malta (and elsewhere in the Mediterranean), Belgium (north-east), and Germany (central and south-west).
 * c. 3400 BC: Constructions in Sardinia (circular graves), Ireland, Netherlands (north-east), Germany (northern and central) Sweden and Denmark.
 * c. 3300 BC: Constructions in France
 * c. 3200 BC: Constructions in Malta ( and ).
 * c. 3100 BC: Constructions in Russia
 * c. 3000 BC: Constructions in Sardinia (earliest construction phase of the prehistoric altar of ), France (,, , , and the Mediterranean coast), Spain , Sicily, Belgium , and , as well as the first s (circular earthworks) in Britain.

Chalcolithic

 * c. 2500 BC: Constructions in Brittany (, and elsewhere), Italy, Sardinia, and  (northeast), plus the climax of the megalithic  in , Germany, and the  (stone circle at ). With the bell-beakers, the Neolithic period gave way to the , the age of copper.
 * c. 2400 BC: The Bell-beaker culture was dominant in Britain, and hundreds of smaller were built in the British Isles at this time.

Bronze Age

 * c. 2000 BC: Constructions in Brittany, Italy : ; Sicily ;, and Scotland . The Chalcolithic period gave way to the in western and northern Europe.
 * c. 1800 BC: Constructions in Italy (, in Sardinia started the ).
 * c. 1500 BC: Constructions in Portugal ( and ).
 * c. 1400 BC: Burial of the in Denmark, whose body is today one of the best-preserved examples of its kind.
 * c. 1200 BC: Last vestiges of the megalithic tradition in the Mediterranean and elsewhere come to an end during the general population upheaval known to ancient history as the.

African megaliths
at the southwest corner of the western Egyptian desert was once a large lake in the n Desert, located 500 miles south of modern-day. By the 5th millennium BC, the peoples in had fashioned an astronomical device that accurately marks the summer. Findings indicate that the region was occupied only seasonally, likely only in the summer when the local lake filled with water for grazing. There are other megalithic stone circles in the southwestern desert.

, a group of megaliths dated 300 BC, was used by -speaking people as an alignment with star systems tuned to a lunar calendar of 354 days. This discovery was made by B. N. Lynch and L. H. Robins of.

Additionally, in central  has a number old megaliths. Some of these ancient structures feature engravings, and the area is a World Heritage Site. Megaliths are also found within the Valley of Marvels in the East Hararghe area.

Asian megaliths
Megalithic burials are found in Northeast and Southeast Asia. They are found mainly in the. They are also found in the, , and in China, the East Coast of ,  and  in Japan,  in  and. Some living megalithic traditions are found on the island of and  in. The greatest concentration of megalithic burials is in Korea. Archaeologists estimate that there are 15,000 to 100,000 southern megaliths in the Korean Peninsula. Typical estimates hover around the 30,000 mark for the entire peninsula, which in itself constitutes some 40% of all dolmens worldwide (see ).

Northern style
Northeast Asian megalithic traditions originated in, in particular the basin. The practice of erecting megalithic burials spread quickly from the Liao River Basin and into the Korean Peninsula, where the structure of megaliths is geographically and chronologically distinct. The earliest megalithic burials are called "northern" or "table-style" because they feature an above-ground burial chamber formed by heavy stone slabs that form a rectangular cist. An oversized capstone is placed over the stone slab burial chamber, giving the appearance of a table-top. These megalithic burials date to the early part of the (c. 1500–850 BC) and are distributed, with a few exceptions, north of the. Few northern-style megaliths in northeast China contain such as, prompting some archaeologists to interpret the burials as the graves of chiefs or preeminent individuals. However, whether a result of grave-robbery or intentional mortuary behaviour, most northern megaliths contain no grave goods.

Southern style
Southern-style megalithic burials are distributed in the southern. It is thought that most of them date to the latter part of the Early or to the Middle Mumun Period. Southern-style megaliths are typically smaller in scale than northern megaliths. The interment area of southern megaliths has an underground burial chamber made of earth or lined with thin stone slabs. A massive capstone is placed over the interment area and is supported by smaller propping stones. Most of the megalithic burials on the are of the southern type.

As with northern megaliths, southern examples contain few, if any, artifacts. However, a small number of megalithic burials contain fine red-burnished pottery, bronze daggers, polished groundstone daggers, and greenstone ornaments. Southern megalithic burials are often found in groups, spread out in lines that are parallel with the direction of streams. Megalithic cemeteries contain burials that are linked together by low stone platforms made from large river cobbles. Broken red-burnished pottery and charred wood found on these platforms has led archaeologists to hypothesize that these platform were sometimes used for ceremonies and rituals. The capstones of many southern megaliths have 'cup-marks' carvings. A small number of capstones have human and dagger representations.

Capstone style
These megaliths are distinguished from other types by the presence of a burial shaft, sometimes up to 4 m in depth, which is lined with large cobbles. A large capstone is placed over the burial shaft without propping stones. Capstone-style megaliths are the most monumental type in the, and they are primarily distributed near or on the south coast of Korea. It seems that most of these burials date to the latter part of the Middle Mumun (c. 700–550 BC), and they may have been built into the early part of the Late Mumun. An example is found near modern at Deokcheon-ni, where a small cemetery contained a capstone burial (No. 1) with a massive, rectangularly shaped, stone and earthen platform. Archaeologists were not able to recover the entire feature, but the low platform was at least 56×18 m in size.

Living megalith culture of Indonesia
The is the host of  megalith cultures both past and present. Living megalith cultures can be found on, an isolated island off the western coast of , the people in the interior of North Sumatra, on  island in  and also  people from the interior of. These megalith cultures remained preserved, isolated and undisturbed well into the late 19th century.

Several megalith sites and structures are also found across Indonesia. Menhirs, dolmens, stone tables, and ancestral stone statues were discovered in various sites in, , , and the.

The megalith site also in West Java displays monoliths, stone terraces, and sarcophagi.

in houses ancient megalith relics such as ancestral stone statues, mostly located in the Bada, Besoa and Napu valleys.

South Asia
Megaliths in South Asia are dated before 3000 BC, with recent findings dated back to 5000 BC in southern India. Megaliths are found in almost all parts of South Asia. There is also a broad time evolution with the megaliths in central India and the upper Indus valley where the oldest megaliths are found, while those in the east are of much later date. A large fraction of these are assumed to be associated with burial or post burial rituals, including memorials for those whose remains may or may not be available. The case-example is that of Brahmagiri, which was excavated by Wheeler (1975) and helped establish the culture sequence in south Indian prehistory. However, there is another distinct class of megaliths that do not seem to be associated with burials.

In South Asia, megaliths of all kinds are noted; these vary from Menhirs, Rock-cut burial, chamber tomb, dolmens, stone alignment, stone circles and anthropomorphic figures. These are broadly classified into two (potentially overlapping) classes (after Moorti, 1994, 2008): Sepulchral (containing remains of the dead), or memorial stones where mortal remains along with funerary objects are placed; and Non-sepulchral including large patterned placement of stones over a wide area. The 'non-sepulchral' type is associated with astronomy and cosmology in South Asia and in other parts of the world (Menon and Vahia, 2010).

In the context of prehistoric anthropomorphic figures in India, (Rao 1988/1999, Upinder Singh 2008) note that it is unclear what these giant anthropomorphs symbolize. They usually occur in association with megalithic monuments and are located in megalithic burial grounds, and may have been connected with ancestor worship.

Melanesian megaliths
Megaliths occur in many parts of, mainly in , and. Few excavations has been made and little is known about the structures. The megalith tomb Otuyam at has been dated to be approximately 2,000 years old which indicates that megaliths are an old custom in Melanesia. However very few megaliths have been dated. The constructions have been used for different rituals. For example, tombs, sacrifices and rituals of fecundity. Dance sites exist next to some megaliths. In some places in Melanesia rituals are continued to be held at the sacred megalith sites. The fact that the beliefs are alive is a reason that most excavations have been stopped at the sites.

Micronesian megaliths
Megalithic structures in Micronesia reach their most developed form on the islands of and  in the Eastern Caroline Islands. On these two islands there was extensive use of prismatic basalt columns to build upland building complexes such as those at Salapwuk on Pohnpei and Menka on Kosrae. These building sites, remote from the ocean, appear to have been abandoned early. Megalithic building then shifted to constructing networks of artificial islands on the coast that supported a multitude of common, royal and religious structures. Dating of the structures is difficult but the complex at on Pohpei was probably inhabited as early as 800 c.a. probably as an artificial islands with the more elaborate buildings and religious structures added to the site from 1000–1400 AD.

Modern theories
Megaliths were used for a variety of purposes ranging from serving as boundary markers of territory, to a reminder of past events, and to being part of the society's religion. Common motifs including crooks and axes seem to be symbols of political power, much as the crook was a symbol of Egyptian pharaohs. Amongst the of India,, , North Africa, North America, and South America, the worship of these stones, or the use of these stones to symbolize a spirit or deity, is a possibility. In the early 20th century, some scholars believed that all megaliths belonged to one global "Megalithic culture" (, e. g. ‘the Manchester school’, by and ), but this has long been disproved by modern dating methods. Nor is it believed any longer that there was a pan-European megalithic culture, although regional cultures existed, even within such small areas as the British Isles. The archaeologist Euan Mackie wrote, "Likewise it cannot be doubted that important regional cultures existed in the Neolithic period and can be defined by different kinds of stone circles and local pottery styles (Ruggles & Barclay 2000: figure 1). No-one has ever been rash enough to claim a nationwide unity of all aspects of Neolithic archaeology!"

Types of megalithic structure
The types of megalithic structure can be divided into two categories, the "polylithic type" and the "monolithic type." Different megalithic structures include: