Tree of life

A clade (from Ancient Greek: κλάδος, klados, "branch"), also known as monophyletic group, is a group of s that consists of a and all its, and represents a single "branch" on the "". The blue and red subgroups (below) are s, or (complete) groups; each shows its common ancestor 'stem' at the bottom of the subgroup 'branch'.



The green subgroup is not a clade. It is an incomplete clade because it excludes the blue branch even though it has also descended from the common ancestor stem at the bottom of the green branch.

The green box (central) could represent an , a group united by conservative anatomical and physiological traits rather than phylogeny.

The green subgroup together with the blue one forms a clade again.

A homoplasy is a characteristic that is shared by two or more taxa due to some cause other than common ancestry. The two main types of homoplasy are convergence (evolution of the "same" character in at least two distinct lineages) and reversion (the return to an ancestral character state).

Convergent evolution
From :

Convergent evolution is the independent evolution of similar features in species of different lineages. Convergent evolution creates analogous structures that have similar form or function but were not present in the last common ancestor of those groups.

Analogous traits arise when different species live in similar ways and/or a similar environment, and so face the same environmental factors. When occupying similar ecological niches (that is, a distinctive way of life) similar problems can lead to similar solutions.

† = Extinct

Tree of life
Life
 * &mdash;, ,  (or cryptomonads), and
 * (or ) &mdash;, e, e, and s
 * (Glaucocystophyta) – a small group of freshwater single-celled algae
 * (Rhodophyta) – red algae. Most are seaweeds
 * (Viridiplantae; Chlorobionta; Chlorobiota) – green algae
 *  (Mesostigmata)
 * – green algae (part)
 * – green algae (part)
 * – green algae (part)
 * (Charophyceae) – green algae (part) and land plants
 * – stoneworts and land plants
 * (Charophytae) – stoneworts
 * (Cormophyta; Embryophyta) – land plants (embryophytes)
 * Chlorobionta
 * (stoneworts)
 * (land plants)
 * (liverworts)
 * (mosses)
 * (hornworts)
 * (vascular plants)
 * Non-seed-bearing plants
 * (Fern)
 * Superdivision
 * &mdash; Various protozoa
 * &mdash; most lobose s and s
 * &mdash;, , and various other protozoa
 * &mdash;, , ,
 * (= Mesomycetozoea)
 * (animals)
 * (mollusca)
 * (arthropods)
 * (vertebrates, starfish, acorn worms)
 * (vascular plants)
 * Non-seed-bearing plants
 * (Fern)
 * Superdivision
 * &mdash; Various protozoa
 * &mdash; most lobose s and s
 * &mdash;, , and various other protozoa
 * &mdash;, , ,
 * (= Mesomycetozoea)
 * (animals)
 * (mollusca)
 * (arthropods)
 * (vertebrates, starfish, acorn worms)
 * &mdash; Various protozoa
 * &mdash; most lobose s and s
 * &mdash;, , and various other protozoa
 * &mdash;, , ,
 * (= Mesomycetozoea)
 * (animals)
 * (mollusca)
 * (arthropods)
 * (vertebrates, starfish, acorn worms)
 * (= Mesomycetozoea)
 * (animals)
 * (mollusca)
 * (arthropods)
 * (vertebrates, starfish, acorn worms)
 * (animals)
 * (mollusca)
 * (arthropods)
 * (vertebrates, starfish, acorn worms)
 * (animals)
 * (mollusca)
 * (arthropods)
 * (vertebrates, starfish, acorn worms)
 * (mollusca)
 * (arthropods)
 * (vertebrates, starfish, acorn worms)
 * (mollusca)
 * (arthropods)
 * (vertebrates, starfish, acorn worms)
 * (mollusca)
 * (arthropods)
 * (vertebrates, starfish, acorn worms)
 * (mollusca)
 * (arthropods)
 * (vertebrates, starfish, acorn worms)

Mollusca

 * &mdash;An ancient lineage of molluscs with cap-like shells
 * † &mdash; fossils; probable ancestors of bivalves
 * † &mdash; fossils; snail-like organisms such as 
 * &mdash; All the s and s including, s, , s, s,
 * &mdash; s, s, s, s, s
 * &mdash; chitons
 * a &mdash;, , , ,
 * &mdash; tusk shells
 * &mdash; worm-like organisms
 * &mdash;An ancient lineage of molluscs with cap-like shells
 * † &mdash; fossils; probable ancestors of bivalves
 * † &mdash; fossils; snail-like organisms such as 
 * &mdash; All the s and s including, s, , s, s,
 * &mdash; s, s, s, s, s
 * &mdash; chitons
 * a &mdash;, , , ,
 * &mdash; tusk shells
 * &mdash; worm-like organisms

Arthropods

 * † – trilobites
 * – etc.
 * – blind crustaceans
 * – horseshoe shrimp
 * – s,, , etc.
 * – seed shrimp
 * – s, s,, etc.
 * – s, ns, etc.
 * – sea spiders
 * – s
 * – s
 * – sister group to millipedes
 * – resemble centipedes
 * –, etc.
 * – insects
 * – horseshoe shrimp
 * – s,, , etc.
 * – seed shrimp
 * – s, s,, etc.
 * – s, ns, etc.
 * – sea spiders
 * – s
 * – s
 * – sister group to millipedes
 * – resemble centipedes
 * –, etc.
 * – insects
 * –, etc.
 * – insects
 * – insects

Vertebrates

 * (acorn worms)
 * †a
 * (starfish)
 * (vertebrates)
 *  or (s and other jawless fishes)
 *  (vertebrates with jaws)
 * † (extinct armoured fishes)
 * (cartilaginous fishes)
 * † (extinct spiny "sharks")
 * Superclass  (bony vertebrates)
 * (ray-finned bony fishes)
 * (lobe-finned fishes, including the tetrapods)
 * (amphibians, some ancestral to the )- now a paraphyletic group
 * (reptiles and birds)
 * (reptile-like mammals)
 *  or (s and other jawless fishes)
 *  (vertebrates with jaws)
 * † (extinct armoured fishes)
 * (cartilaginous fishes)
 * † (extinct spiny "sharks")
 * Superclass  (bony vertebrates)
 * (ray-finned bony fishes)
 * (lobe-finned fishes, including the tetrapods)
 * (amphibians, some ancestral to the )- now a paraphyletic group
 * (reptiles and birds)
 * (reptile-like mammals)
 * (reptile-like mammals)

Reptiles
{|
 * (reptiles and birds)
 * (superorder)
 * ? (Turtles, s & terrapins)
 * various extinct clades
 * various extinct clades
 * (disputed as whether or )
 * (turtles)
 * various extinct clades
 * various extinct clades
 * various extinct clades
 * ia
 * (ns and their extinct relatives)
 * (crocodilians)
 * various extinct clades
 * various extinct clades
 * (disputed as whether or )
 * (turtles)
 * various extinct clades
 * various extinct clades
 * various extinct clades
 * ia
 * (ns and their extinct relatives)
 * (crocodilians)
 * various extinct clades
 * (disputed as whether or )
 * (turtles)
 * various extinct clades
 * various extinct clades
 * various extinct clades
 * ia
 * (ns and their extinct relatives)
 * (crocodilians)
 * various extinct clades
 * various extinct clades
 * various extinct clades
 * ia
 * (ns and their extinct relatives)
 * (crocodilians)
 * (ns and their extinct relatives)
 * (crocodilians)
 * (ns and their extinct relatives)
 * (crocodilians)
 * (ns and their extinct relatives)
 * (crocodilians)
 * (crocodilians)
 * (crocodilians)
 * (crocodilians)
 * (crocodilians)
 * (crocodilians)
 * (crocodilians)
 * (crocodilians)
 * (crocodilians)
 * (crocodilians)
 * (crocodilians)
 * (crocodilians)

Dinosaurs
See also:. From :


 * ("lizard-hipped"; includes Theropoda and Sauropodomorpha)
 * † (early bipedal carnivores)
 * (all ; most were carnivorous)
 * † (small, early theropods; includes  and close relatives)
 * † (early crested and carnivorous theropods)
 * † (generally elaborately horned, the dominant southern carnivores of the Cretaceous)
 * ("stiff tails"; includes most theropods)
 * † (early group of large carnivores including the semiaquatic spinosaurids)
 * † (' and close relatives, like ')
 * (feathered theropods, with a range of body sizes and niches)
 * † (common early coelurosaurs with reduced forelimbs)
 * † ( and close relatives; had reduced forelimbs)
 * † ("-mimics"; mostly toothless; carnivores to possible herbivores)
 * †oidea (small insectivores with reduced forelimbs each bearing one enlarged claw)
 * ("hand snatchers"; had long, slender arms and fingers)
 * †ia (bipedal herbivores with large hand claws and small heads)
 * † (mostly toothless; their diet and lifestyle are uncertain)
 * † (small, winged theropods or primitive birds)
 * † (small- to medium-sized; bird-like, with a distinctive toe claw)
 * (modern birds and extinct relatives)
 * † (small primitive avialans with long third fingers)
 * † (large, early short-tailed avialans)
 * † (small toothless avialans)
 * † (primitive tree-dwelling, flying avialans)
 * (advanced flying birds)
 * † (toothed Cretaceous Chinese birds)
 * † (specialized aquatic diving birds)
 * (modern, beaked birds and their extinct relatives)
 * † (herbivores with small heads, long necks, long tails)
 * † (small, primitive, omnivorous sauropodomorphs)
 * † (primitive, strictly bipedal "prosauropods")
 * † (small, primitive sauropodomorphs)
 * † (small, primitive sauropodomorphs)
 * † (very large and heavy, usually over 15 m long; quadrupedal)
 * † (primitive sauropods with pillar-like limbs)
 * † ("true sauropods")
 * † ("whale reptiles")
 * † (European group of Jurassic and Cretaceous sauropods)
 * † ("new sauropods")
 * † (skulls and tails elongated; teeth typically narrow and pencil-like)
 * † (boxy skulls; spoon- or pencil-shaped teeth)
 * † (long-necked, long-armed macronarians)
 * †ia (diverse; stocky, with wide hips; most common in the late Cretaceous of southern continents)
 * † ("bird-hipped"; diverse bipedal and quadrupedal herbivores)
 * † (small basal ornithopod herbivores/omnivores with prominent )
 * † (armored dinosaurs; mostly quadrupeds)
 * † (s as primary armor; some had club-like tails)
 * † (spikes and plates as primary armor)
 * † ("new ornithischians")
 * †a (various sizes; bipeds and quadrupeds; evolved a method of chewing using skull flexibility and numerous teeth)
 * † (characterized by a cranial growth)
 * † (bipeds with domed or knobby growth on skulls)
 * † (quadrupeds with frills; many also had horns)
 * }
 * † (characterized by a cranial growth)
 * † (bipeds with domed or knobby growth on skulls)
 * † (quadrupeds with frills; many also had horns)
 * }

Mammals
(reptile-like mammals) (Pelycosaur)
 * † (Dimetrodon)
 * (upright)
 * Eutherapsida
 * † ia
 * † ia
 * † ia (Lystrosaurus)
 * ia
 * ia
 * ia
 * (mammals)
 * † (Dimetrodon)
 * (upright)
 * Eutherapsida
 * † ia
 * † ia
 * † ia (Lystrosaurus)
 * ia
 * ia
 * ia
 * (mammals)
 * Eutherapsida
 * † ia
 * † ia
 * † ia (Lystrosaurus)
 * ia
 * ia
 * ia
 * (mammals)
 * ia
 * ia
 * ia
 * (mammals)
 * ia
 * (mammals)

Marsupialia
From :


 * (93 species)
 * : opossums
 * (seven species)
 * : s
 * (one species)
 * † (incertae sedis)
 * (75 species)
 * : es, s, s,, and relatives
 * (two species)
 * : s
 * (24 species)
 * †Chaeropodidae: s
 * : s and allies
 * (137 species)
 * : s
 * : s
 * : and
 * : s
 * †tidae: s
 * : s and es
 * : and relatives
 * : s,, and relatives
 * : s, rat kangaroos, s
 * : and
 * : s
 * †tidae: s
 * : s and es
 * : and relatives
 * : s,, and relatives
 * : s, rat kangaroos, s
 * : s and es
 * : and relatives
 * : s,, and relatives
 * : s, rat kangaroos, s
 * : s,, and relatives
 * : s, rat kangaroos, s
 * : s, rat kangaroos, s

Placentalia
From :


 * (,, and )
 * ( and )
 * (,, , , , and )
 * ( and )
 * (,, and )
 * ( and )
 * (,, , , , , , , and )
 * (, s,, , and s)
 * (:, , , , , , etc.)
 * (:, , , , and )
 * (,, , , , , etc.)
 * (:, , , , , etc.)
 * (s,, , , , and s)
 * (,, and )
 * ia (s:, , , , , etc.)
 * (s)
 * (primates:, , , , , etc.)
 * : lemurs, galagos and lorisids
 * : dwarf lemurs and mouse-lemurs (34 species)
 * : aye-aye (one species)
 * : ring-tailed lemur and allies (21 species)
 * : sportive lemurs (26 species)
 * : woolly lemurs and allies (19 species)
 * : lorisids (14 species)
 * : galagos (19 species)
 * : tarsiers, monkeys and apes
 * : tarsiers (11 species)
 * (or Anthropoidea)
 * Parvorder : New World monkeys
 * : marmosets and tamarins (42 species)
 * : capuchins and squirrel monkeys (14 species)
 * : night or owl monkeys (douroucoulis) (11 species)
 * : titis, sakis and uakaris (43 species)
 * : howler, spider, woolly spider and woolly monkeys (29 species)
 * : Old World monkeys (138 species)
 * : gibbons or "lesser apes" (18 species)
 * : great apes, including humans (8 species)
 * : orangutans
 * : hominines
 * : gorillas
 * : hominins
 * : chimpanzees
 * : homininans
 * : man
 * : tarsiers (11 species)
 * (or Anthropoidea)
 * Parvorder : New World monkeys
 * : marmosets and tamarins (42 species)
 * : capuchins and squirrel monkeys (14 species)
 * : night or owl monkeys (douroucoulis) (11 species)
 * : titis, sakis and uakaris (43 species)
 * : howler, spider, woolly spider and woolly monkeys (29 species)
 * : Old World monkeys (138 species)
 * : gibbons or "lesser apes" (18 species)
 * : great apes, including humans (8 species)
 * : orangutans
 * : hominines
 * : gorillas
 * : hominins
 * : chimpanzees
 * : homininans
 * : man
 * : hominins
 * : chimpanzees
 * : homininans
 * : man