Separation of church and state

The separation of church and state is a philosophic and concept for defining political distance in the relationship between  and the. Conceptually, the term refers to the creation of a (with or without legally explicit church–state separation) and to disestablishment, the changing of an existing, formal relationship between the church and the state.

In a society, the degree of political separation between the church and the civil state is determined by the legal structures and prevalent legal views that define the proper relationship between organized religion and the state. The proposes a relationship wherein the two political entities interact as organizations independent of the authority of the other. The strict application of secular principle of  is used in France, while secular societies, such as Denmark and the United Kingdom, maintain a form of constitutional recognition of an official.

The philosophy of the separation of the church from the civil state parallels the philosophies of, , , and , by way of which the European states assumed some of the social roles of the church, the , a social shift that produced a culturally secular population and. In practice, church–state separation varies from total separation, mandated by the country's political, as in and , to a state religion, as in.

Late antiquity
An important contributor to the discussion concerning the proper relationship between Church and state was St., who in , Book XIX, Chapter 17, examined the ideal relationship between the "earthly city" and the "city of God". In this work, Augustine posited that major points of overlap were to be found between the "earthly city" and the "city of God", especially as people need to live together and get along on earth. Thus, Augustine held that it was the work of the "temporal city" to make it possible for a "heavenly city" to be established on earth.

Medieval Europe
For centuries, monarchs ruled by the idea of. Sometimes this began to be used by a monarch to support the notion that the king ruled both his own kingdom and Church within its boundaries, a theory known as. On the other side was the Catholic doctrine that the, as the Vicar of Christ on earth, should have the ultimate authority over the Church, and indirectly over the state. Moreover, throughout the Middle Ages the claimed the right to depose the Catholic kings of Western Europe and tried to exercise it, sometimes successfully (see the investiture controversy, below), sometimes not, such as was the case with  and  of.

In the West the issue of the separation of church and state during the medieval period centered on monarchs who but encroached on the Church's rule of the spiritual sphere. This unresolved contradiction in ultimate control of the Church led to power struggles and crises of leadership, notably in the, which was resolved in the in 1122. By this concordat, the Emperor renounced the right to invest ecclesiastics with ring and crosier, the symbols of their spiritual power, and guaranteed election by the canons of cathedral or abbey and free consecration.

Reformation
At the beginning of the Protestant, articulated a. According to, perhaps one of the most important modern proponents of the separation of church and state, Luther's doctrine of the two kingdoms marked the beginning of the modern conception of separation of church and state.

Those of the (the s) took Luther's ideas in new direction, most notably in the writings of  (1490–1527), who agreed with Luther that there were two kingdoms, but differed in arguing that these two kingdoms should be separate, and hence baptized believers should not vote, serve in public office or participate in any other way with the "kingdom of the world". While there was a diversity of views in the early days of the Radical Reformation, in time Sattler's perspective became the normative position for most Anabaptists in the coming centuries. Anabaptists came to teach that religion should never be compelled by state power, approaching the issue of church-state relations primarily from the position of protecting the church from the state.

In the 1530s,, angered by the 's refusal to annul his marriage to , decided to break with the Church and set himself as ruler of the. The monarchs of Great Britain have retained ecclesiastical authority in the Church of England since Henry VIII, having the current title, . England's ecclesiastical intermixing did not spread widely, however, due to the of s that resulted from Henry's power grab. This eventually led to, , and the anti-Catholicism of , the , and the against Catholics and others who did not adhere to the Church of England.

One of the results of the persecution in England was that some people fled Great Britain to be able to worship as they wished – but they did not seek religious freedom, and early North American colonies were generally as intolerant of religious dissent as England; Puritan, for example, did not allow standard Church of England worship. Some of these people voluntarily sailed to the American Colonies specifically for this purpose. After the American Colonies against, the  was specifically amended to ban the establishment of religion by.

Enlightenment
The concept of separating church and state is often credited to the writings of English philosopher (1632–1704). According to his principle of the, Locke argued that the government lacked authority in the realm of individual conscience, as this was something rational people could not cede to the government for it or others to control. For Locke, this created a natural right in the liberty of conscience, which he argued must therefore remain protected from any government authority. These views on religious tolerance and the importance of individual conscience, along with his social contract, became particularly influential in the American colonies and the drafting of the.

At the same period of the 17th century, and some  were forerunners of the separation of Church and State, maintaining that faith was independent of reason. During the 18th century, the ideas of Locke and Bayle, in particular the separation of Church and State, became more common, promoted by the philosophers of the. already wrote in 1721 about religious tolerance and a degree of separation between religion and government. defended some level of separation but ultimately subordinated the Church to the needs of the State while, for instance, was a partisan of a strict separation of Church and State, saying "the distance between the throne and the altar can never be too great".

Jefferson and the Bill of Rights
In English, the exact term is an offshoot of the phrase, "wall of separation between church and state", as written in 's letter to the in 1802. In that letter, referencing the, Jefferson writes:

"Believing with you that religion is a matter which lies solely between Man & his God, that he owes account to none other for his faith or his worship, that the legitimate powers of government reach actions only, & not opinions, I contemplate with sovereign reverence that act of the whole American people which declared that their legislature should 'make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof,' thus building a wall of separation between Church and State."

Jefferson was describing to the Baptists that the prevents the establishment of a national church, and in so doing they did not have to fear government interference in their right to expressions of religious conscience. The Bill of Rights, adopted in 1791 as ten amendments to the, was one of the earliest political expressions of religious freedom. Others were the, also authored by Jefferson and adopted by Virginia in 1786; and the French.

In various countries
Countries have varying degrees of separation between government and religious institutions. Since the 1780s a number of countries have set up explicit barriers between church and state. The degree of actual separation between government and religion or religious institutions varies widely. In some countries the two institutions remain heavily interconnected. There are new conflicts in the post-Communist world.

The many variations on separation can be seen in some countries with high degrees of religious freedom and tolerance combined with strongly secular political cultures which have still maintained state churches or financial ties with certain religious organizations into the 21st century. In England, there is a constitutionally established but. The is the, and 26 bishops  sit in the upper house of government, the.

In other kingdoms the or  or other high-ranking official figures may be legally required to be a member of a given faith. Powers to appoint high-ranking members of the state churches are also often still vested in the worldly governments. These powers may be slightly anachronistic or superficial, however, and disguise the true level of religious freedom the nation possesses. In the case of Andorra there are two heads of state, neither of them native Andorrans. One is the Roman Catholic Bishop of Seu de Urgell, a town located in northern Spain. He has the title of Episcopalian Coprince (the other Coprince being the French Head of State). Coprinces enjoy political power in terms of law ratification and constitutional court designation, among others.

Australia
The prevents the Commonwealth from establishing any religion or requiring a religious test for any office:

"Ch 5 § 116 The Commonwealth shall not make any law for establishing any religion, or for imposing any religious observance, or for prohibiting the free exercise of any religion, and no religious test shall be required as a qualification for any office or public trust under the Commonwealth."

The language is derived from the United States' constitution, but has been altered. Following the usual practice of the, it has been interpreted far more narrowly than the equivalent US sections and no law has ever been struck down for contravening the section. Today, the Commonwealth Government provides broad-based funding to religious schools. The Commonwealth used to fund religious chaplains, but the High Court in  found the funding agreement invalid under Section 61. However, the High Court found that Section 116 had no relevance, as the chaplains themselves did not hold office under the Commonwealth. All Australian parliaments are opened with a Christian prayer, and the preamble to the Australian Constitution refers to a "humbl[e] rel[iance] on the blessing of Almighty God".

Although the Australian monarch is, also British monarch and Governor of the , her Australian title is unrelated to her religious office and she has no role in the. The prohibition against religious tests has allowed former Anglican Archbishop of Brisbane to be appointed, the highest domestic constitutional officer; however, this was criticised.

Despite inclusion in the "States" chapter, Section 116 does not apply to states because of changes during drafting, and they are free to establish their own religions. Although no state has ever introduced a state church ( restricted religious groups during the early colonial period), the legal body corresponding to many religious organisations is established by state legislation. There have been two referenda to extend Section 116 to states, but both failed. In each case the changes were grouped with other changes and voters did not have the opportunity to expressly accept only one change. Most states permit broad exemptions to religious groups from anti-discrimination legislation; for example, the New South Wales act allowing same-sex couples to adopt children permits religious adoption agencies to refuse them.

The current situation, described as a "principle of state neutrality" rather than "separation of church and state", has been criticised by both secularists and religious groups. On the one hand, secularists have argued that government neutrality to religions leads to a "flawed democrac[y]" or even a "pluralistic theocracy" as the government cannot be neutral towards the religion of people who do not have one. On the other hand, religious groups and others have been concerned that state governments are restricting them from exercising their religion by and forcing them to do unconscionable acts.

Azerbaijan
is the dominant religion in Azerbaijan, with 96% of Azerbaijanis being, Shia being in the majority. However, Azerbaijan is officially a secular state. According to the Constitution of Azerbaijan, the state and religion are separate. Article 7 of the Constitution defines the Azerbaijani state as a democratic, legal, secular, unitary republic. Therefore, the Constitution provides freedom of religions and beliefs.

The Azerbaijani State Committee for Work with Religious Organizations controls the relations between the state and religions.

Ethnic minorities such as, , , , , and  with different religious beliefs to Islam all live in. Several religions are practiced in Azerbaijan. There are many Orthodox and Catholic churches in different regions of Azerbaijan.

Brazil
Brazil was a of the  from 1500 until the nation's  from Portugal, in 1822, during which time  was the official state religion. With the rise of the, although Catholicism retained its status as the official creed, subsidized by the state, other religions were allowed to flourish, as the secured. The fall of the Empire, in 1889, gave way to a Republican regime, and a Constitution was enacted in 1891, which severed the ties between church and state; Republican ideologues such as and  were influenced by  in France and the United States. The 1891 Constitutional separation of Church and State has been maintained ever since. The current, in force since 1988, ensures the right to religious freedom, bans the establishment of state churches and any relationship of "dependence or alliance" of officials with religious leaders, except for "collaboration in the public interest, defined by law".

China
China, during the era of the, had established as the official state ideology over that of  of the preceding  over two millennium ago. In post-1949 modern-day China, owing to such historic experiences as the, the had no diplomatic relations with the  for over half a century, and maintained separation of the church from state affairs, and although the Chinese government's methods are disputed by the Vatican,  had accepted the ordination of a bishop who was pre-selected by the government for the  in 2007. However, a new ordination of a Catholic bishop in November 2010, according to, has threatened to "damage ties" between China and the Vatican.

The guarantees, in its article 36, that:

"[...] No state organ, public organization or individual may compel citizens to believe in, or not to believe in, any religion; nor may they discriminate against citizens who believe in, or do not believe in, any religion. [...] No one may make use of religion to engage in activities that disrupt public order, impair the health of citizens or interfere with the educational system of the state. Religious bodies and religious affairs are not subject to any foreign domination."

Croatia
in is a right defined by the, which also defines all religious communities as equal in front of the law and separated from the state. Principle of separation of church and state is enshrined in Article 41 which states:

"All religious communities shall be equal before the law and clearly separated from the state. Religious communities shall be free, in compliance with law, to publicly conduct religious services, open schools, academies or other institutions, and welfare and charitable organizations and to manage them, and they shall enjoy the protection and assistance of the state in their activities."

Public schools allow religious teaching (Vjeronauk) in cooperation with religious communities having agreements with the state, but attendance is not mandated. Religion classes are organized widely in public elementary and secondary schools.

The public holidays also include religious festivals of:, , , , , , and. The primary holidays are based on the Catholic liturgical year, but other believers are allowed to celebrate other major religious holidays as well.

The receives state financial support and other benefits established in s between the Government and the Vatican. In an effort to further define their rights and privileges within a legal framework, the government has additional agreements with other 14 religious communities: (SPC),, , , , , , , , , , , ,  and Croatian.

Finland
The declares that the organization and administration of the  is regulated in the Church Act, and the organization and administration of the  in the Orthodox Church Act. The Lutheran Church and the Orthodox Church thus have a special status in Finnish legislation compared to other religious bodies, and are variously referred to as either "national churches" or "state churches", although officially they do not hold such positions. The Lutheran Church does not consider itself a state church, and prefers to use the term "national church".

The Finnish Freethinkers Association has criticized the official endorsement of the two churches by the Finnish state, and has campaigned for the separation of church and state.

France
The French version of separation of church and state, called, is a product of French history and philosophy. It was formalized in a providing for the separation of church and state, that is, the separation of religion from political power.

This model of a secularist state protects the religious institutions from state interference, but with public religious expression to some extent frowned upon. This aims to protect the public power from the influences of religious institutions, especially in public office. Religious views which contain no idea of public responsibility, or which consider religious opinion irrelevant to politics, are not impinged upon by this type of secularization of public discourse.

Former President criticised "negative laïcité" and talked about a "positive laïcité" that recognizes the contribution of faith to French culture, history and society, allows for faith in the public discourse and for government subsidies for faith-based groups. He visited the in December 2007 and publicly emphasized France's  roots, while highlighting the importance of, advocating that  should come back into the. took a very different position during the, promising to insert the concept of laïcité into the constitution. In fact, the French constitution only says that the French Republic is "laïque" but no article in the 1905 law or in the constitution defines laïcité.

Nevertheless, there are certain entanglements in France which include:
 * The most significant example consists in two areas, and  (see  for further detail), where the 1802  between France and the Holy See still prevails because the area was part of Germany when the  was passed and the attempt of the laicist  in 1924 failed due to public protests. Catholic priests as well as the clergy of three other religions (the Lutheran, the Calvinist , and Jewish ) are paid by the state, and schools have religion courses. Moreover, the  and  are named (or rather, formally appointed) by the French Head of State on proposition of the Pope. In the same way, the presidents of the two official Protestant churches are appointed by the State, after proposition by their respective Churches. This makes the French President the only temporal power in the world to formally have retained the right to appoint Catholic bishops, all other Catholic bishops being appointed by the Pope.
 * In French Guyana the Royal Regulation of 1828 makes the French state pay for the Roman Catholic clergy, but not for the clergy of other religions.
 * In the French oversea departments and territories since the 1939 décret Mandel the French State supports the Churches.
 * The French President is ex officio a, where Roman Catholicism has a status of state religion (the other co-prince being the , Spain). Moreover, French heads of states are traditionally offered an honorary title of of the , Cathedral of Rome. Once this honour has been awarded to a newly elected president, France pays for a choir vicar, a priest who occupies the seat in the canonical chapter of the Cathedral in lieu of the president (all French presidents have been male and at least formally Roman Catholic, but if one were not, this honour could most probably not be awarded to him or her.)  The French President also holds a seat in a few other canonical chapters in France.
 * Another example of the complex ties between France and the Catholic Church consists in the Pieux Établissements de la France à Rome et à Lorette: five churches in Rome (, St. Louis of the French, St. Ivo of the Bretons, St. Claude of the Free County of Burgundy, and St. Nicholas of the Lorrains) as well as a chapel in belong to France, and are administered and paid for by a special foundation linked to the French embassy to the Holy See.
 * In, a French overseas territory, national education is conceded to the diocese, which gets paid for it by the State
 * A further entanglement consists in liturgical honours accorded to French consular officials under Capitations with the Ottoman Empire which persist for example in the Lebanon and in ownership of the Catholic cathedral in Smyrna (Izmir) and the extraterritoriality of St. Anne's in Jerusalem and more generally the diplomatic status of the Holy Places.

Germany
The guarantees, but there is not a complete separation of church and state in Germany. Officially recognized religious bodies operate as Körperschaften des öffentlichen Rechts (, as opposed to private). For recognized religious communities, some taxes are collected by the state; this is at the request of the religious community and a fee is charged for the service. Religious instruction is an optional school subject in Germany. The German State understands itself as neutral in matters of religious beliefs, so no teacher can be forced to teach religion. But on the other hand, all who do teach religious instruction need an official permission by their religious community. The treaties with the are referred to as  whereas the treaties with Protestant Churches and umbrellas of Jewish congregations are called "state treaties". Both are the legal framework for cooperation between the religious bodies and the German State at the federal as well as at the state level.

India
Despite 80% of Indian population are, under the , India is a secular country and there are no special provisions favouring specific religions in its constitution. declared India is a secular state in order to avoid and religious conflicts between, ,  and other religions.

As a result of such government power over religion, politicians are sometimes accused of playing politics, i.e. of giving political support to issues for the sole purpose of gaining the votes of members of a particular community, including religious communities. Both the (INC) and the  (BJP) have been accused of exploiting the people by indulging in vote bank politics. The, a divorce lawsuit, generated much controversy when the Congress was accused of appeasing the Muslim orthodoxy by bringing in a parliamentary amendment to negate the decision. After the, there were allegations of political parties indulging in vote bank politics.

Italy
In the principle of separation of church and state is enshrined in Article 7 of the, which states: "The State and the Catholic Church are independent and sovereign, each within its own sphere. Their relations are regulated by the Lateran pacts. Amendments to such Pacts which are accepted by both parties shall not require the procedure of constitutional amendments."

Japan
became the in Japan with the  in 1868, and suppression of other religions ensued. Under the (1945–52) "" was considered to have been used as a propaganda tool to propel the Japanese people to war. The issued by the occupation government required that all state support for and involvement in any religious or Shinto institution or doctrine stop, including funding, coverage in textbooks, and official acts and ceremonies.

The new constitution adopted in 1947, Articles 20 and 89 of the protect freedom of religion, and prevent the government from compelling religious observances or using public money to benefit religious institutions.

South Korea
Freedom of religion in South Korea is provided for in the, which mandates the separation of religion and state, and prohibits discrimination on the basis of religious beliefs. Despite this, religious organizations play a major role and make strong influence in politics.

Mexico
The issue of the role of the has been highly divisive since the 1820s. Its large land holdings were especially a point of contention. Mexico was guided toward what was proclaimed a separation of church and state by who, in 1859, attempted to eliminate the role of the Roman Catholic Church in the nation by appropriating its land and prerogatives.

In 1859 the was issued – purportedly separating church and state, but actually involving state intervention in Church matters by abolishing monastic orders, and nationalizing church property. President confiscated church property. He disbanded religious orders and ordered the separation of church and state at.

In 1926, after several years of the and insecurity, President, an atheist and leader of the ruling , enacted the , which eradicated all the personal property of the churches, closed churches that were not registered with the State, and prohibited clerics from holding a public office. The law was unpopular; and several protesters from rural areas, fought against federal troops in what became known as the. After the war's end in 1929, President upheld a previous truce where the law would remain enacted, but not enforced, in exchange for the hostilities to end.

Ever since, the Catholic Church has remained active through the. The party gained a major foothold in 2000 when President was elected, ending 70 years of unbroken rule from the.

Norway
An act approved in 2016 created the Church of Norway as an independent legal entity, effective from 1 January 2017. Before 2017 all clergy were civil servants (employees of the central government). On 21 May 2012, the passed a  amendment that granted the  increased autonomy, and states that "the Church of Norway, an Evangelical-Lutheran church, remains Norway's people's church, and is supported by the State as such" ("people's church" or folkekirke is also the name of the Danish state church, ), replacing the earlier expression which stated that "the Evangelical-Lutheran religion remains the public religion of the State." The final amendment passed by a vote of 162–3. The three dissenting votes were all from the.

The constitution also says that Norway's values are based on its Christian and humanist heritage, and according to the Constitution, the is required to be Lutheran. The government will still provide funding for the church as it does with other faith-based institutions, but the responsibility for appointing bishops and provosts will now rest with the church instead of the government. Prior to 1997, the appointments of parish priests and residing chaplains was also the responsibility of the government, but the church was granted the right to hire such clergy directly with the new Church Law of 1997. The Church of Norway is regulated by its own law (kirkeloven) and all municipalities are required by law to support the activities of the Church of Norway and municipal authorities are represented in its local bodies.

Philippines
In Article II "Declaration of Principles and State Policies", Section 6, the declares, "The separation of Church and State shall be inviolable." This reasserts, with minor differences in wording and capitalization, a declaration made in Article XV, Section 15 of the 1973 Constitution.

Similarly, Article III, Section 5 declares, "No law shall be made respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof. The free exercise and enjoyment of religious profession and worship, without discrimination or preference, shall forever be allowed. No religious test shall be required for the exercise of civil or political rights."; echoing Article IV, Section 8 of the 1973 Constitution verbatim.

Romania
is a secular state and has no state religion. However, the role of religion in society is regulated by several articles of the Romanian Constitution.

Art 29. Freedom of Conscience. (1) Freedom of thought and opinion, as well as freedom of religion, cannot be limited in any way. No one shall be coerced to adopt an opinion or adhere to a religious faith against their will. (5) Religious cults are autonomous in relation to the state, which provides support including the facilitation of religious assistance in the army, hospitals, penitentiaries, retirement homes and orphanages.

Art 32. Right to education (7) The state assures freedom of religious education, according to the requirements of each specific cult. In state schools, religious education is organized and guaranteed by law.

Saudi Arabia
The legal system of Saudi Arabia is based on, ic law derived from the and the  (the traditions) of the , and therefore no separation of church and state is present.

Singapore
Unlike, is home to people of many religions other than. Also, Singapore does not have any state religion. The has attempted to avoid giving any specific religions priority over the rest.

In 1972 the Singapore government de-registered and banned the activities of Jehovah's Witnesses in Singapore. The Singaporean government claimed that this was justified because members of Jehovah's Witnesses refuse to perform military service (which is obligatory for all male citizens), salute the, or swear oaths of allegiance to the state. Singapore has also banned all written materials published by the and the, both publishing arms of the Jehovah's Witnesses. A person who possesses a prohibited publication can be fined up to $2,000 Singapore dollars and jailed up to 12 months for a first conviction.

Spain
In Spain, commentators have posited that the form of church-state separation enacted in France in 1905 and found in the are of a "hostile" variety, noting that the hostility of the state toward the church was a cause of the breakdown of democracy and the onset of the. Following the end of the war, the Catholic Church regained an officially sanctioned, predominant position with. Religious freedom was guaranteed only, nine years before the end of the regime.

Since 1978, according to the (section 16.3) "No religion shall have a state character. The public authorities shall take into account the religious beliefs of Spanish society and shall consequently maintain appropriate cooperation relations with the Catholic Church and other confessions."

Sweden
The was instigated by  (1523–60) and within the half century following his death had become established as a  state church with significant power in Swedish society, itself under the control of the state apparatus. A degree of freedom of worship (for foreign residents only) was achieved under the rule of (1771–92), but it was not until the passage of the Dissenter Acts of 1860 and 1874 that Swedish citizens were allowed to leave the state church – and then only provided that those wishing to do so first registered their adhesion to another, officially approved denomination. Following years of discussions that began in 1995, the Church of Sweden was finally separated from the state as from 1 January 2000. However, the separation was not fully completed. Although the status of state religion came to an end, the Church of Sweden nevertheless remains Swedens national church, and as such is still regulated by the government through the law of the Church of Sweden. Therefore, it would be more appropriate to refer to a change of relation between state and church rather than a separation. Furthermore, the Swedish constitution still maintain that the Sovereign and the members of the royal family has to confess an evangelical Lutheran faith, which in practice means they need to be members of the Church of Sweden to remain in the line of succession. Thusly according to the ideas of one could argue that the symbolic connection between state and church still remains.

Switzerland
The articles 8 ("Equality before the law") and 15 ("Freedom of religion and conscience") of the guarantees individual freedom of beliefs. It notably states that " No person may be forced to join or belong to a religious community, to participate in a religious act or to follow religious teachings".

Churches and state are separated at the federal level since 1848. However, the article 72 ("Church and state") of the determine that "The regulation of the relationship between the church and the state is the responsibility of the cantons". Some recognise officially some churches (,,  and ). Other cantons, such as and  are  (that is to say, secular).

Turkey
Turkey, whose population is overwhelmingly Muslim, is also considered to have practiced the school of secularism since 1928, which the founding father 's  and theories became known as.

Despite Turkey being an officially secular country, the Preamble of the Constitution states that "there shall be no interference whatsoever of the sacred religious feelings in State affairs and politics." In order to control the way religion is perceived by adherents, the State pays s' wages (only for Sunni Muslims), and provides religious education (of the Sunni Muslim variety) in. The State has a Department of Religious Affairs, directly under the Prime Minister bureaucratically, responsible for organizing the Muslim religion – including what will and will not be mentioned in sermons given at s, especially on Fridays. Such an interpretation of secularism, where religion is under strict control of the State is very different from that of the, and is a good example of how secularism can be applied in a variety of ways in different regions of the world. The exercise of their religion in Turkey by the Greek Orthodox and the Armenian Apostolic communities is partly regulated by the terms of the. No such official recognition extends to the Syriac communities.

Under 's tenure since 2003, Turkish secularism has come under heavy fire as a new  mood has overtaken Turkish politics. Erdoğan has pursued a suite of policies determined to give state backing to particular interpretations of Islam.

United Kingdom
The, a part of the worldwide , is an , and the is the titular , and cannot be a Roman Catholic. Until the, the monarch could not be married to a Catholic.

In state-run schools in England, Wales and Northern Ireland (but not in privately run schools), there is a requirement for a daily act of worship that is "wholly or mainly of a Christian character", although non-Christian faith schools are exempt (instead having to have their own form of worship) and sixth-form pupils (in England and Wales) and parents of younger pupils can opt out. Official reports have recommended removing the requirement entirely. The High Court of the United Kingdom has ruled in favour of challenges, brought by pupil families supported by the, to secondary-level religious studies exam syllabuses that excluded non-religious worldviews.

In England, senior Church appointments are Crown appointments; the Church carries out state functions such as coronations; Anglican representatives have an automatic role on ; and 26 diocesan bishops have seats in the, where they are known as the as opposed to the. The Lords Spiritual have a significant influence when they vote as a bloc on certain issues, notably moral issues like abortion and. All of state-funded schools in England are religious school, too, and most are controlled by the Church of England, with significant numbers of state-funded Catholic, Muslim, and Jewish schools as well. The Anglican Church also has specific legal rights and responsibilities in solemnised marriages that are different from other faith organisations. Non-religious couples can have a with no religious elements, but non-religious  are not yet legally recognised in their own right. Collective worship makes prayer and worship of a Christian character mandatory in all schools, but parents can remove their children from these lessons, and sixth formers have the right to opt out.

The (or Kirk) is the largest religious denomination in Scotland, however, unlike the Church of England it is  and (since 1921) not a branch of the state, with the Sovereign holding no formal role in the Church other than being an ordinary member. However, though the Kirk is disestablished, Scotland is not a secular polity. The Kirk remains a to which the state has special obligations; it is conventional that the monarch, who is head of state, must attend the Church when she visits Scotland, and they swear in their accession oath to maintain and preserve the church. The state also gives numerous preferences to the Church of Scotland and Catholic Church, particularly in education. The has not been abolished in Scotland, though it has fallen into disuse. Non-religious couples can have a with no religious elements, and  have been legally recognised since 2005, and enshrined in Scottish law since 2017. Collective worship makes prayer and worship of a Christian character mandatory in all schools, but parents can remove their children from these lessons, though sixth formers have no right to opt out.

The was disestablished as early as 1871; the  was disestablished in 1920 (although certain border parishes remain part of the Established Church of England). Unlike the UK Government and to some extent the Scottish Government, the has no religious links, though state-funded religious schools are routinely approved in Wales. Collective worship makes prayer and worship of a Christian character mandatory in all Welsh schools.

Northern Ireland is the most religious part of the UK, but technically has secular governance. However, in practice, it is the least secular in the UK. Schools, as in Northern Ireland, are largely divided between Anglican and Catholic schools, and identification with one community or the other is often sought on equal opportunities-monitoring forms. The religious education curriculum is drawn up exclusively by six Christian churches, to the exclusion of other religions or beliefs, and collective worship is mandatory in all schools.

United States
The which ratified in 1791 states that "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." However, the phrase "separation of church and state" itself does not appear in the. The states themselves were free to establish an official religion, and twelve out of the thirteen had official religions.

The phrase of Jefferson was quoted by the  first in 1878, and then in a series of cases starting in 1947. The Supreme Court did not consider the question of how this applied to the states until 1947; when they did, in , the court the establishment clause, determining that it applied to the states and that a law enabling reimbursement for  to all schools (including parochial schools) was constitutional.

Prior to its incorporation, unsuccessful attempts were made to amend the constitution to explicitly apply the establishment clause to states in the 1870s and 1890s.

The concept was argued to be implicit in the flight of from religious oppression in the  to found the  on the principle of state neutrality in matters of faith.

Williams was motivated by historical abuse of governmental power, and believed that government must remove itself from anything that touched upon human beings' relationship with God,advocating a "hedge or wall of Separation between the Garden of the Church and the Wilderness of the world" in order to keep religion pure.

Through his work Rhode Island's charter was confirmed by, which  explicitly stated that no one was to be "molested, punished, disquieted, or called in question, for any differences in opinion, in matters of religion".

Williams is credited with helping to shape the church and state debate in England, and influencing such men as and particularly John Locke, whose work was studied closely by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and other designers of the U.S. Constitution. Williams theologically derived his views mainly from Scripture and his motive is seen as religious, but Jefferson's advocation of religious liberty is seen as political and social. Though no states currently have an established religion, almost all of the state constitutions invoke God and some originally required officeholders to believe in the. The Constitution applies separation of church and state only to the federal government, not the states, so theoretically a state could still attempt to establish a particular religion as the religion of state, though any attempt to do so would certainly be challenged.

The Treaty of Paris
In 1783, the United States signed a treaty with that was promulgated "in the name of the Most Holy and Undivided Trinity". It was dipped in religious language, crediting "'Divine Providence' with having disposed the two parties to 'forget all past misunderstandings,' and is dated 'in the year of our Lord' 1783".

The Treaty of Tripoli
In 1797, the ratified a treaty with  that stated in Article 11:

"As the Government of the United States of America is not, in any sense, founded on the Christian religion; as it has in itself no character of enmity against the laws, religion, or tranquility, of ; and, as the said States never entered into any war, or act of hostility against any nation, it is declared by the parties, that no pretext arising from religious opinions, shall ever produce an interruption of the harmony existing between the two countries."

According to Frank Lambert, Professor of History at, the assurances in Article 11 were

"intended to allay the fears of the Muslim state by insisting that religion would not govern how the treaty was interpreted and enforced. President and the Senate made clear that the pact was between two sovereign states, not between two religious powers."

Supporters of the separation of church and state argue that this treaty, which was ratified by the Senate, confirms that the government of the United States was specifically intended to be religiously neutral. The treaty was submitted by President Adams and unanimously ratified by the Senate.

Church of the Holy Trinity v. United States
In the 1892 case , Supreme Court Justice wrote for a unanimous Court that "no purpose of action against religion can be imputed to any legislation, state or national, because this is a religious people. ... [T]his is a Christian nation."

Legal historian writes that:

Use of the phrase
The phrase "separation of church and state" is derived from a letter written by President in 1802 to , and published in a Massachusetts newspaper soon thereafter. In that letter, referencing the, Jefferson writes:

"Believing with you that religion is a matter which lies solely between Man & his God, that he owes account to none other for his faith or his worship, that the legitimate powers of government reach actions only, & not opinions, I contemplate with sovereign reverence that act of the whole American people which declared that their legislature should "make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof", thus building a wall of separation between Church & State."

Another early user of the term was, the principal drafter of the. In a 1789 debate in the House of Representatives regarding the draft of the First Amendment, the following was said:

"August 15, 1789. Mr. [Peter] Sylvester [of New York] had some doubts. … He feared it [the First Amendment] might be thought to have a tendency to abolish religion altogether. … Mr. [Elbridge] Gerry [of Massachusetts] said it would read better if it was that "no religious doctrine shall be established by law." … Mr. [James] Madison [of Virginia] said he apprehended the meaning of the words to be, that "Congress should not establish a religion, and enforce the legal observation of it by law." … [T]he State[s] … seemed to entertain an opinion that under the clause of the Constitution. … it enabled them [Congress] to make laws of such a nature as might … establish a national religion; to prevent these effects he presumed the amendment was intended. … Mr. Madison thought if the word "National" was inserted before religion, it would satisfy the minds of honorable gentlemen. … He thought if the word "national" was introduced, it would point the amendment directly to the object it was intended to prevent."

Madison contended "Because if Religion be exempt from the authority of the Society at large, still less can it be subject to that of the Legislative Body." Several years later he wrote of "total separation of the church from the state". "Strongly guarded as is the separation between Religion & Govt in the Constitution of the United States", Madison wrote, and he declared, "practical distinction between Religion and Civil Government is essential to the purity of both, and as guaranteed by the Constitution of the United States." In a letter to Madison further expanded,

"We are teaching the world the great truth that Govts. do better without Kings & Nobles than with them. The merit will be doubled by the other lesson that Religion flourishes in greater purity, without than with the aid of Govt."

This attitude is further reflected in the, originally authored by Jefferson and championed by Madison, and guaranteeing that no one may be compelled to finance any religion or denomination.

"… no man shall be compelled to frequent or support any religious worship, place, or ministry whatsoever, nor shall be enforced, restrained, molested, or burthened in his body or goods, nor shall otherwise suffer on account of his religious opinions or belief; but that all men shall be free to profess, and by argument to maintain, their opinion in matters of religion, and that the same shall in no wise diminish enlarge, or affect their civil capacities."

Under the, the treatment of religion by the government is broken into two clauses: the and the. Both are discussed in regard to whether certain state actions would amount to an impermissible government establishment of religion.

The phrase was also mentioned in an eloquent letter written by President on July 10, 1843. During the 1960 presidential campaign the potential influence of the Catholic Church on John F. Kennedy's presidency was raised. If elected, it would be the first time that a Catholic would occupy the highest office in the United States. , in his on 12 September 1960, addressed the question directly, saying,

"I believe in an America where the separation of church and state is absolute – where no Catholic prelate would tell the President (should he be Catholic) how to act, and no Protestant minister would tell his parishioners for whom to vote – where no church or church school is granted any public funds or political preference – and where no man is denied public office merely because his religion differs from the President who might appoint him or the people who might elect him. I believe in an America that is officially neither Catholic, Protestant nor Jewish – where no public official either requests or accepts instructions on public policy from the Pope, the National Council of Churches or any other ecclesiastical source – where no religious body seeks to impose its will directly or indirectly upon the general populace or the public acts of its officials – and where religious liberty is so indivisible that an act against one church is treated as an act against all. […] I do not speak for my church on public matters – and the church does not speak for me. Whatever issue may come before me as President – on birth control, divorce, censorship, gambling or any other subject – I will make my decision in accordance with these views, in accordance with what my conscience tells me to be the national interest, and without regard to outside religious pressures or dictates. And no power or threat of punishment could cause me to decide otherwise. But if the time should ever come – and I do not concede any conflict to be even remotely possible – when my office would require me to either violate my conscience or violate the national interest, then I would resign the office; and I hope any conscientious public servant would do the same."

The United States Supreme Court has referenced the separation of church and state metaphor more than 25 times, though not always fully embracing the principle, saying "the metaphor itself is not a wholly accurate description of the practical aspects of the relationship that in fact exists between church and state". In , the Court denied the free exercise claims of Mormons in the Utah territory who claimed was an aspect of their religious freedom. The Court used the phrase again by Justice Hugo Black in 1947 in . In a minority opinion in , Justice Rehnquist presented the view that the establishment clause was intended to protect local establishments of religion from federal interference. Rehnquist made numerous citations of cases that rebutted the idea of a total wall of separation between Church and State. A result of such reasoning was Supreme Court support for government payments to faith-based community projects. has criticized the metaphor as a bulldozer removing religion from American public life.

Pledge of Allegiance
Critics of the American have argued that the use of the phrase "under God" violates the separation of church and state. While the pledge was created by in 1891, in 1954, the, a Catholic organization, campaigned with other groups to have the words "under God" added to the pledge. On June 14, 1954, President signed the bill to make the addition.

Since then, critics have challenged the existence of the phrase in the Pledge. In 2004, an atheist man challenged a Californian law which required students to recite the pledge. He said the law violated his daughter's right to free speech. The Supreme Court ruled in favor of the school system in , mainly due to the fact that the father could not claim sufficient custody of the child over his ex-wife who was the legal guardian. Additionally, the Supreme Court stated that teachers leading students in the pledge was constitutional, and therefore the pledge should stay the same.

Islam: Ahmadiyya
According to the 's understanding of, Islamic principles state that the politics of government should be separate from the doctrine of religion. Special preference should not be given to a Muslim over a non-Muslim. This is best represented by the Constitution of Medina which, in the words of Dr. Craig Considine, was one of the earliest forms of secular governance, providing as it did, equal religious and communal rights to Muslims, Jews and pagans, while recognising them all as bound together by the identity of the city-state.

Christianity
Historically, the and the  have deemed a close relationship between church and state desirable wherever possible. The Catholic Church, in addition, teaches that states have a duty to recognize the Catholic faith officially and in its laws and mores, if such states' populations are or become predominantly Catholic. The Orthodox churches have historically at times formed a "" with the state, whether de jure or de facto. On the other hand, while some Protestants hold views similar to those above, some s refuse to vote, carry arms, or participate in civil government in any way, often leading to their persecution, as happened to s, their descendants including the, , and , in the 20th Century. Anabaptist and, in many countries, believing by not participating they are closer to the , since " answered , 'My kingdom is not of this world: if my kingdom were of this world, then would my servants fight (to defend him).' " – :36. For them, the term "" cannot be a valid governmental position, leaving only Christian people, possibly in Christian communities, beyond which are the "things which are Caesar's" –.

Methodism
In its section on National Reform, the Book of Discipline of the states, with respect to Church and state relations:

"It shall be the duty of the ministers and members of the Wesleyan Methodist Connection to use their influence in every feasible manner in favor of a more complete recognition of the authority of Almighty God, in the secular and civil relations, both of society and of government, and the authority of our Lord Jesus Christ as King of nations as well as King of saints."

As such, the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Church advocates for Bible reading in public schools, chaplaincies in the Armed Forces and in Congress, s (reflecting historic Methodist belief in ), and.

Reformed
The Reformed tradition of Christianity (,, denominations) have also addressed the issue of the relationship between the Church and state. In its 1870, the stated:

"We should regard the successful attempt to expel all religious instruction and influence from our public schools as an evil of the first magnitude. Nor do we see how this can be done without inflicting a deadly wound upon the intellectual and moral life of the nation…We look upon the state as an ordinance of God, and not a mere creature of the popular will; and, under its high responsibility to the Supreme Ruler of the world, we hold it to be both its right and bound duty to educate its children in those elementary principles of knowledge and virtue which are essential to its own security and well-being. The union of church and state is indeed against our American theory and constitutions of government; but the most intimate union of the state with the saving and conservative forces of Christianity is one of the oldest customs of the country, and has always ranked a vital article of our political faith."

Roman Catholicism
The first full articulation of the Catholic doctrine on the principles of the relationship of the to the state (at the time, the ) is contained in the document, written by  to the Emperor, which states that the Church and the state should work together in society, that the state should recognize the Church's role in society, with the Church holding superiority in moral matters and the state having superiority in temporal matters. Monsignor John A. Ryan speaks of this Catholic doctrine thusly: "If there is only one true religion, and if its possession is the most important good in life, for states as well as individuals, then the public profession, protection, and promotion of this religion, and the legal prohibition of all direct assaults upon it, becomes one of the most obvious and fundamental duties of the state. For it is the business of the state to safeguard and promote human welfare in all departments of life."  ("Joy and Hope"), the 1965 Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World, noted that "... the Church has always had the duty of scrutinizing the signs of the times and of interpreting them in the light of the Gospel." The mission of the Church recognized that the realities of secularization and pluralism exist despite the traditional teaching on confessional statehood. Because of this reality of secularisation, it also recognized and encouraged the role of the laity in the life of the Church in the secular world, viewing the laity as much-needed agents of change in order to bring about a transformation of society more in line with Catholic teaching. "This council exhorts Christians, as citizens of two cities, to strive to discharge their earthly duties conscientiously and in response to the Gospel spirit.". This was further expanded in , Decree on the Apostolate of the Laity, of 18 November 1965.

Apostolicam Actuositatem, the Second Vatican Council's "Decree on the Apostolate of the Laity", was issued 18 November 1965. The purpose of this document was to encourage and guide lay people in their Christian service. "Since the laity, in accordance with their state of life, live in the midst of the world and its concerns, they are called by God to exercise their apostolate in the world like leaven, with the ardor of the Spirit of Christ." explains that lay persons "...are called by Baptism to witness to Christ in the secular sphere of life; that is in the family, in work and leisure, in science and cultural, in politics and government, in trade and mass media, and in national and international relations".

The in , the 's Declaration on Religious Freedom (1986), states that all people are entitled to a degree of religious freedom as long as public order is not disturbed and that constitutional law should recognize such freedom. "If, in view of peculiar circumstances obtaining among peoples, special civil recognition is given to one religious community in the constitutional order of society, it is at the same time imperative that the right of all citizens and religious communities to religious freedom should be recognized and made effective in practice. At the same time, the document reiterated that the Church "leaves untouched traditional Catholic doctrine on the moral duty of men and societies toward the true religion and toward the one Church of Christ". The traditional teaching of the duty of society towards the Church is described in the current edition of the Catechism of the Catholic Church, number 2105.

The Catholic Church takes the position that the Church itself has a proper role in guiding and informing consciences, explaining the, and judging the moral integrity of the state, thereby serving as check to the power of the state. The Church teaches that the right of individuals to religious freedom (enshrined in the U.S.'s "") is sound, and, all other things being equal, ideally the Church would be the established religion of the state, without, however coercing any individual to embrace the Catholic religion. Still, it also recognizes that it would not always be prudent in all states to immediately mandate the Catholic religion as the official religion of the state, most especially in states in which Catholicism has not yet become the religion of the overwhelming majority.

Catholic philosopher Thomas Storck argues that, once a society becomes "Catholicised" and adopts the Church as the state religion, it is further morally bound: "'the just requirements of public order' vary considerably between a Catholic state and a religiously neutral state. If a neutral state can prohibit polygamy, even though it is a restriction on religious freedom, then a Catholic state can likewise restrict the public activity of non-Catholic groups. "The just requirements of public order" can be understood only in the context of a people's traditions and modes of living, and in a Catholic society would necessarily include that social unity based upon a recognition of the Catholic Church as the religion of society, and the consequent exclusion of all other religions from public life. Western secular democracies, committed to freedom of religion for all sects, find no contradiction in proscribing polygamy, although some religions permit it, because its practice is contrary to the traditions and mores of these nations. A Catholic country can certainly similarly maintain its own manner of life."

"If, under consideration of historical circumstances among peoples, special civil recognition is given to one religious community in the constitutional order of a society, it is necessary at the same time that the right of all citizens and religious communities to religious freedom should be acknowledged and maintained."

The Church takes stances on current political issues, and tries to influence legislation on matters it considers relevant. For example, the Catholic bishops in the United States adopted a plan in the 1970s calling for efforts aimed at a providing " child to the maximum degree possible".

Benedict XVI regards modern idea of freedom (meaning the Church should be free from governmental coercion and overtly political influence from the state) as a legitimate product of the Christian environment, in a similar way to Jacques Le Goff. However, contrary to the French historian, the Pope rejects the conception of religion as just a private affair.

Friendly and hostile separation
Scholars have distinguished between what can be called "friendly" and "hostile" separations of church and state. The friendly type limits the interference of the church in matters of the state but also limits the interference of the state in church matters. The hostile variety, by contrast, seeks to confine religion purely to the home or church and limits religious education, religious rites of passage and public displays of faith.

The hostile model of secularism arose with the and is typified in the, its resulting , in the  of 1910, and in the. The hostile model exhibited during these events can be seen as approaching the type of seen in s.

The French separation of 1905 and the Spanish separation of 1931 have been characterized as the two most hostile of the twentieth century, although the current church-state relations in both countries are considered generally friendly. Nevertheless, France's former President at the beginning of his term, considered his country's current state of affairs a "negative laïcité" and wanted to develop a "positive laïcité" more open to religion. The concerns of the state toward religion have been seen by some as one cause of the civil war in and.

The French Catholic philosopher and drafter of the ,, noted the distinction between the models found in France and in the mid-twentieth century United States. He considered the U.S. model of that time to be more amicable because it had both "sharp distinction and actual cooperation" between church and state, what he called a "historical treasure" and admonished the United States, "Please to God that you keep it carefully, and do not let your concept of separation veer round to the European one." , another French observer tended to make the same distinction, "In the U.S., from the beginning, politics and religion were in accord, and they have not ceased to be so since."