Buddhism

The history of Buddhism spans from the 6th century BCE to the present. arose in the eastern part of, in and around the ancient Kingdom of (now in , ), and is based on the teachings of. This makes it one of the oldest religions practiced today. The religion evolved as it spread from the northeastern region of the Indian subcontinent through, , and. At one time or another, it influenced most of the Asian continent. The history of Buddhism is also characterized by the development of numerous movements, schisms, and schools, among them the, and  traditions, with contrasting periods of expansion and retreat.

Life of the Buddha
was the historical founder of. The early sources state he was born in the small (Pali: Sakka) Republic, which was part of the  realm of, now in modern-day. He is thus also known as the Shakyamuni (literally: "The sage of the Shakya clan"). The republic was ruled by a council of household heads, and Gautama was born to one of these elites, so that he described himself as a when talking to Brahmins. The contain no continuous life of the Buddha, only later after 200 BCE were various "biographies" with much mythological embellishment written. All texts agree however that Gautama renounced the householder life and lived as a  for some time studying under various teachers, before attaining  (extinguishment) and  (awakening) through meditation.

For the remaining 45 years of his life, he traveled the of central  (the region of the  and its tributaries), teaching his doctrine to a diverse range of people from different  and initiating monks into his order. The Buddha sent his disciples to spread the teaching across India. He also initiated an order of nuns. He urged his disciples to teach in the local language or dialects. He spent a lot of his time near the cities of, and  (Skt. Śrāvastī, Rājagrha, Vāiśalī). By the time of his death at 80, he had thousands of followers.

The years following the death of the Buddha saw the emergence of many movements during the next 400 years: first the schools of, of which only remains today, and then the formation of  and , pan-Buddhist sects based on the acceptance of new scriptures and the revision of older techniques.

Followers of Buddhism, called Buddhists in English, referred to themselves as Sakyan-s or Sakyabhiksu in ancient India. Buddhist scholar Donald S. Lopez asserts they also used the term Bauddha, although scholar Richard Cohen asserts that that term was used only by outsiders to describe Buddhists.

Buddhism Early Ages
After the death of the Buddha, the Buddhist (monastic community) remained centered on the Ganges valley, spreading gradually from its ancient heartland. The canonical sources record various councils, where the monastic recited and organized the orally transmitted collections of the Buddha's teachings and settled certain disciplinary problems within the community. Modern scholarship has questioned the accuracy and historicity of these traditional accounts.

The first Buddhist council is traditionally said to have been held just after Buddha's, and presided over by , one of His most senior disciples, at Rājagṛha (today's ) with the support of king Ajāthaśatru. According to Charles Prebish, almost all scholars have questioned the historicity of this first council. Over time, these two monastic fraternities would further divide into various. The Sthaviras gave birth to a large number of influential schools including the, the (also known as Vatsīputrīya), the s and the  ( being descended from these). The meanwhile also developed their own schools and doctrines early on, which can be seen in texts like the, associated with the , or ‘Transcendentalist’ school, who might be the same as the s or "One-utterancers". This school has been seen as foreshadowing certain ideas, especially due to their view that all of Gautama Buddha's acts were "transcendental" or "supramundane", even those performed before his Buddhahood.

In the third century BCE, some Buddhists began introducing new systematized teachings called, based on previous lists or tables (Matrka) of main doctrinal topics. Unlike the, which were prose or discourses, the Abhidharma literature consisted of systematic doctrinal exposition and often differed across the Buddhist schools who disagreed on points of doctrine. Abhidharma sought to analyze all experience into its ultimate constituents, phenomenal events or processes called dharmas.

Mauryan empire (322–180 BCE)
During the reign of the Emperor  (273–232 BCE), Buddhism gained royal support and began to spread more widely reaching most of the Indian subcontinent. After his invasion of Kalinga, seems to have experienced remorse and began working to improve the lives of his subjects. also built wells, rest-houses and hospitals for humans and animals, he also abolished torture, royal hunting trips and perhaps even the death penalty. also supported non-Buddhist faiths like Jainism and Brahmanism. propagated religion by building s and pillars urging, among other things, respect of all animal life and enjoining people to follow the. He has been hailed by Buddhist sources as the model for the compassionate (wheel turning monarch).

Another feature of Mauryan Buddhism was the worship and veneration of, large mounds which contained relics (: sarīra) of the Buddha or other saints within. It was believed that the practice of devotion to these relics and stupas could bring blessings. Perhaps the best-preserved example of a Mauryan Buddhist site is the (dating from the 3rd century BCE).

According to the plates and pillars left by Aśoka (the ), emissaries were sent to various countries in order to spread Buddhism, as far south as and as far west as the Greek kingdoms, in particular the neighboring, and possibly even farther to the Mediterranean.

sources state that convened the third Buddhist council around 250 BC at Pataliputra (today's ) with the elder. The objective of the council was to purify the Saṅgha, particularly from non-Buddhist ascetics who had been attracted by the royal patronage. Following the council, Buddhist missionaries were dispatched throughout the known world.

Proselytism in the Hellenistic world
Some of the describe the efforts made by him to propagate the Buddhist faith throughout the Hellenistic world, which at that time formed an uninterrupted continuum from the borders of India to Greece. The edicts indicate a clear understanding of the political organization in Hellenistic territories: the names and locations of the main Greek monarchs of the time are identified, and they are claimed as recipients of Buddhist : of the  (261–246 BCE),  of Egypt (285–247 BCE),  of Macedonia (276–239 BCE),  (288–258 BCE) in  (modern ), and  (272–255 BCE) in  (modern Northwestern ). One of the edicts states:


 * "The conquest by has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred s (5,400–9,600 km) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the s, the s, and as far as  ." (, 13th Rock Edict, S. Dhammika).

Furthermore, according to the (XII) some of Aśoka's emissaries were Greek, particularly one named. Aśoka also issued edicts in the Greek language as well as in Aramaic. One of them, found in Kandahar, advocates the adoption of "piety" (using the Greek term  for ) to the Greek community.

It is not clear how much these interactions may have been influential, but authors like have commented that Buddhism may have influenced Western thought and religion at that time. Linssen points to the presence of Buddhist communities in the Hellenistic world around that period, in particular in (mentioned by ), and to the pre-Christian monastic order of the  (possibly a deformation of the Pāli word ""), who may have "almost entirely drawn (its) inspiration from the teaching and practices of Buddhist asceticism" and may even have been descendants of Aśoka's emissaries to the West. Philosophers like and  are sometimes thought to have been influenced by Buddhist teachings.

Buddhist gravestones from the have also been found in Alexandria, decorated with depictions of the Dharma wheel. The presence of Buddhists in Alexandria has even drawn the conclusion that they influenced monastic Christianity. In the 2nd century CE, the Christian dogmatist, recognized Bactrian  and Indian s for their influence on Greek thought.

Establishment of Sri Lanka Buddhism
n chronicles like the  state that Aśoka's son brought Buddhism to the island during the 2nd century BCE. In addition, Aśoka's daughter, also established the bhikkhunī (order for nuns) in Sri Lanka, also bringing with her a sapling of the sacred bodhi tree that was subsequently planted in. These two figures are seen as the mythical founders of the Sri Lankan. They are said to have converted the King (307 - 267 BCE) and many of the nobility.

The first architectural records of Buddha images, however, actually come from the reign of King (65-109 BCE). The major Buddhist monasteries and schools in Ancient Sri Lanka were, and. The was written down during the 1st century BCE to preserve the teaching in a time of war and famine. It is the only complete collection of to survive in a. It reflects the tradition of the  school. Later  commentators of the  such as  (4th–5th century) and  (5th–6th century), systematized the traditional Sri Lankan commentary literature.

Although gained some influence in Sri Lanka as it was studied in  and, the  (“Great Monastery”) school became dominant in Sri Lanka following the reign of  (1153–1186), who abolished the Abhayagiri and Jetavanin traditions.

Mahāyāna Buddhism
The Buddhist movement that became known as Mahayana (Great Vehicle) and also the Bodhisattvayana, began sometime between 150 BCE and 100 CE, drawing on both and  trends. The earliest inscription which is recognizably Mahayana dates from 180 CE and is found in.

The Mahayana emphasized the path and the doctrine of  (skill in means). It emerged as a set of loose groups associated with new texts named the. The Mahayana sutras promoted new doctrines, such as the idea that "there exist other Buddhas who are simultaneously preaching in countless other world-systems". In time Mahayana Bodhisattvas and also multiple Buddhas came to be seen as transcendental beneficent beings who were subjects of devotion.

Mahayana remained a minority among Indian Buddhists for some time, growing slowly until about half of all monks encountered by in 7th-century India were Mahayanists. Early Mahayana schools of thought included the, , and (Tathāgatagarbha) teachings. Mahayana is today the dominant form of Buddhism in East Asia and Tibet.

Several scholars have suggested that the, which are among the earliest Mahāyāna sūtras, developed among the along the  in the  region of. The earliest Mahāyāna sūtras to include the very first versions of the genre, along with texts concerning, which were probably written down in the 1st century BCE in the south of India. believes that "the Mahāyāna originated in the south of India and almost certainly in the Āndhra country." Anthony Barber and Sree Padma also trace Mahayana Buddhism to ancient Buddhist sites in the lower Kṛṣṇa Valley, including, and.

Shunga dynasty (2nd–1st century BCE)
The (185–73 BCE) was established about 50 years after Aśoka's death. After assassinating King (last of the  rulers), military commander-in-chief  took the throne. Buddhist religious scriptures such as the allege that Pushyamitra (an orthodox ) was hostile towards Buddhists and persecuted the Buddhist faith. Buddhists wrote that he "destroyed hundreds of monasteries and killed hundreds of thousands of innocent Monks": 840,000 Buddhist s which had been built by Aśoka were destroyed, and 100 gold coins were offered for the head of each Buddhist monk.

Modern historians, however, dispute this view in the light of literary and archaeological evidence. They opine that following Aśoka's sponsorship of Buddhism, it is possible that Buddhist institutions fell on harder times under the Shungas, but no evidence of active persecution has been noted. observes: "To judge from the documents, Pushyamitra must be acquitted through lack of proof." Another eminent historian, points to archaeological evidence that "suggests the contrary" to the claim that "Pushyamitra was a fanatical anti-Buddhist" and that he "never actually destroyed 840,000 stupas as claimed by Buddhist works, if any". Thapar stresses that Buddhist accounts are probably hyperbolic renditions of Pushyamitra's attack of the Mauryas, and merely reflect the desperate frustration of the Buddhist religious figures in the face of the possibly irreversible decline in the importance of their religion under the Shungas.

During the period, Buddhist monks deserted the valley, following either the northern road () or the southern road (dakṣinapatha). Conversely, Buddhist artistic creation stopped in the old area, to reposition itself either in the northwest area of  and  or in the southeast around. Some artistic activity also occurred in central India, as in, to which the Shungas may or may not have contributed.

Greco-Buddhism
The king  (reigned c. 200–180 BCE) invaded the Indian Subcontinent, establishing an  that was to last in parts of Northwest South Asia until the end of the 1st century CE. Buddhism flourished under the Indo-Greek and Greco-Bactrian kings. One of the most famous Indo-Greek kings is (reigned c. 160–135 BCE). He may have converted to Buddhism and is presented in the Mahāyāna tradition as one of the great benefactors of the faith, on a par with king Aśoka or the later Kushan king. Menander's coins bear designs of the eight-spoked, a classic Buddhist symbol. Direct cultural exchange is also suggested by the dialogue of the between  and the Buddhist monk, who was himself a student of the Greek Buddhist monk. Upon Menander's death, the honor of sharing his remains was claimed by the cities under his rule, and they were enshrined in s, in a parallel with the historic Buddha. Several of Menander's successors inscribed "Follower of the Dharma," in the  script, on their coins.

During the first century BCE the first representations of the Buddha are found in the lands ruled by the Indo-Greeks, in a realistic style known as. Many of the stylistic elements in the representations of the Buddha point to Greek influence: the -like wavy robe covering both shoulders (more exactly, its lighter version, the Greek ), the  stance of the upright figures (see: 1st–2nd century Gandhara standing Buddhas), the stylicized  curly hair and topknot  apparently derived from the style of the  (330 BCE), and the measured quality of the faces, all rendered with strong artistic  (See: ). A large quantity of s combining Buddhist and purely Hellenistic styles and were excavated at the n site of.

Several influential Greek Buddhist monks are recorded. (literally translated as 'Great Teacher/Preserver of the Dharma'), was "a Greek ("") Buddhist head monk", according to the (Chap. XXIX), who led 30,000 Buddhist monks from "the Greek city of Alasandra" (, around 150 km north of today's  in ), to Sri Lanka for the dedication of the  in  during the rule (165 BC - 135 BC) of King. (meaning: Protected by the ), was one of the sent by the  emperor  to proselytize the  faith. He is described as being a Greek (: "", lit. "n") in the.

Kushan empire and Gandharan Buddhism
The (30–375 CE) was formed by the invading  nomads in the 1st century BCE. It eventually encompassed much of northern India, Pakistan and Afghanistan. The Kushans adopted elements of the Hellenistic culture of Bactria and the Indo-Greeks. During Kushan rule, was at the height of its influence and a significant number of Buddhist centers were built or renovated. The Buddhist art of Kushan was a synthesis of Greco-Roman, Iranian and Indian elements. The also date from this period. Written in, they are the oldest Buddhist manuscripts yet discovered (circa 1st century CE). According to Richard Salomon, most of them belong to the school.

Emperor (128–151 CE) is particularly known for his support of Buddhism. During his reign, stupas and monasteries were built in the Gandhāran city of (Skt. Purusapura), which he used as a capital. Kushan royal support and the opening of trade routes allowed Gandharan Buddhism to spread along the to, the  and thus to China.

Kanishka is also said to have convened a major Buddhist council for the tradition, either in  or. Kanishka gathered 500 learned monks partly to compile extensive commentaries on the, although it is possible that some editorial work was carried out upon the existing canon itself. Allegedly during the council there were altogether three hundred thousand verses and over nine million statements compiled, and it took twelve years to complete. The main fruit of this council was the compilation of the vast commentary known as the ("Great Exegesis"), an extensive compendium and reference work on a portion of the Sarvāstivādin Abhidharma. Modern scholars such as and  have questioned the veracity of this traditional account.

Scholars believe that it was also around this time that a significant change was made in the language of the Sarvāstivādin canon, by converting an earlier version into. Although this change was probably effected without significant loss of integrity to the canon, this event was of particular significance since Sanskrit was the sacred language of in India, and was also being used by other thinkers, regardless of their specific religious or philosophical allegiance, thus enabling a far wider audience to gain access to Buddhist ideas and practices.

After the fall of the Kushans, small kingdoms ruled the Gandharan region, and later the conquered the area (circa 440s–670). Under the Hephthalites, Gandharan Buddhism continued to thrive in cities like, as remarked by  who visited the region in the 7th century. Xuanzang notes that there were over a hundred Buddhist monasteries in the city, including the as well many stupas and monks. After the end of the Hephthalite empire, Gandharan Buddhism declined in Gandhara proper (in the Peshawar basin). However it continued to thrive in adjacent areas like the of Pakistan,, Kashmir and in Afghanistan (in sites such as ).

Spread to Central Asia
was home to the international trade route known as the Silk Road, which carried goods between, , the and the. Buddhism was present in this region from about the second-century BCE. Initially, the school was the most successful in their efforts to spread Buddhism in Central Asia. The was one of the earliest Buddhist kingdoms in the area and helped transmit Buddhism from India to China.

The 's unification of most of this area and their support of Buddhism allowed it to easily spread along the trade routes of the region throughout Central Asia. During the first century CE under the Kushans, the Sarvastivada school flourished in this region, some of the monks also bringing Mahayana teachings with them. Buddhism would eventually reach modern-day, , , , and. As Buddhism reached many of these lands, Buddhists began to translate and produce texts in the local languages, such as (a ),  (also Iranian), , , , and Chinese.

Central Asians played a key role in the transmission of Buddhism to China The first translators of Buddhists scriptures into Chinese were Iranians, including the  (c. 148 CE), the   and Kang Sengkai (from Samarkand). Thirty-seven early translators of Buddhist texts are known, and the majority of them have been identified as hailing from the Iranian cultural sphere. The  (226–651 CE) would eventually rule over many of these regions (such as  and ), but they tolerated the Buddhist religion. During the mid-seventh century, the of the  followed by the  and the later establishment of the  in Central Asia (ca. 977–1186) led to the decline and eventual disappearance of Buddhism from most of these regions.

Buddhism also flourished in the eastern part of central Asia. Indians and Iranians lived in major cities of this region like and. The region has revealed extremely rich Buddhist works of art as well as Buddhist texts such as. is highly reminiscent of the Gandhāran style, and scriptures in the Gandhāri script have been found. The conquered the area in the 8th century and blended with the local Iranian peoples, absorbing the Buddhist culture of the region. They were later absorbed by the Mongol. Many printed Buddhist texts from the region date to the Yuan, and they were printed in the Uyghur, Xixia and Sanskrit languages. The Uyghurs also restored cave temples and repainted Buddhist wall paintings such as at. Uyghur Buddhism was the last major Buddhist culture in East Turkestan and it lasted until the mid 14th century. After the, Buddhism ceased to be a major religion there.

Gupta and eras
Buddhism continued to flourish in India during the (4th-6th centuries) which brought order to much of north India. Gupta rulers such as (c. 414 – 455 CE) supported and enlarged the  university, which became the largest and most influential Buddhist university in India for many centuries. The great Buddhist philosopher taught his new doctrine there, and Nalanda remained a central place for the study of the theory of knowledge. Another major Buddhist university was, in western India, which was second only to Nalanda in the 5th century. The influence of the Gupta style of art spread along with the faith from south-east Asia to China. During this period, Chinese pilgrims also visited India to study Buddhism.

One of these pilgrims was, who visited India during the reign of the Gupta emperor in 405, and commented on the prosperity and mild administration of the Gupta empire. Another Chinese traveler who reached India after the end of the Guptas in the 7th century was. He reported in his travels across India that Buddhism was popular in and. While reporting many deserted stupas in the area around modern day and the persecution of Buddhists by  in the Kingdom of  in modern-day West Bengal, complimented the patronage of emperor (c. 590–647 CE). also noted that in various regions was giving way to  and.

After the fall of, the Gangetic plain saw the rise of many small feuding kingdoms. This was to last until the rise of the (8th-12th centuries) arose in the  region. The Pālas were stanch supporters of Buddhism, and build several important Buddhist centers, such as, and. They also supported older centers like Nalanda and Bodh Gaya. It was at these great Buddhist universities that scholars elaborated the philosophies of Abhidharma, Madhyamaka, and Pramana, as well as the study of linguistics, medicine, astronomy, music, painting, and sculpture. Great Buddhist scholars such as and  date from this period. Under the s, Mahāyāna Buddhism thus flourished and spread to,  and.

A milestone in the decline of Indian Buddhism in the North occurred in 1193 when Islamic raiders under  burnt. By the end of the 12th century, following the Islamic conquest of the Buddhist strongholds in and  by 's {{Wikipedia link|Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji], and the loss of political support coupled with social pressures, the practice of Buddhism retreated to the Himalayan foothills in the North and {{Wikipedia link|Sri Lanka}} in the south. Additionally, the influence of Buddhism also waned due to Hinduism's revival movements such as {{Wikipedia link|Advaita}}, and the rise of the {{Wikipedia link|bhakti movement}}.

Vajrayāna
Under the Gupta and Pala empires, a Tantric Buddhist movement arose, variously named, Mantrayāna, Tantric Buddhism and Esoteric Buddhism. It promoted new practices such as the use of, , , and the visualization of deities and Buddhas and developed a new class of literature, the. The movement can be traced back to groups of wandering yogis called.

Various classes of Vajrayana literature developed as a result of royal courts sponsoring both Buddhism and, especially the Buddhist Yogini tantras. The, which later came to classified under , states that mantras taught in the Shaiva, Garuda and Vaishnava tantras will be effective if applied by Buddhists since they were all taught originally by. The Guhyasiddhi of Padmavajra, a work associated with the, prescribes acting as a Shaiva guru and initiating members into scriptures and mandalas. The texts adopted the  list from the Shaiva text Tantrasadbhava, introducing a copying error where a deity was mistaken for a place.

Tibetan Buddhism
Buddhism arrived late in Tibet, during the 7th century. The form that predominated, via the south of Tibet, was a blend of mahāyāna and vajrayāna from the universities of the of the Bengal region in eastern India. influence came from the south west (Kashmir) and the north west. Their texts found their way into the, providing the Tibetans with almost all of their primary sources about the. A subsect of this school, was the source of the Tibetan. Chan Buddhism was introduced via east Tibet from China and left its impression, but was rendered of lesser importance by early political events.

From the outset, Buddhism was opposed by the native shamanistic religion, which had the support of the aristocracy, but with royal patronage, it thrived to a peak under King Rälpachän (817-836). Terminology in translation was standardised around 825, enabling a translation methodology that was highly literal. Despite a reversal in Buddhist influence which began under King Langdarma (836-842), the following centuries saw a colossal effort in collecting available Indian sources, many of which are now extant only in Tibetan translation. Tibetan Buddhism was favored above other religions by the rulers of imperial Chinese and Mongol (1271–1368).

China
Buddhism was introduced in China during the (206 BC-220 CE) and was present by around 50 CE. Although the archaeological record confirms that Buddhism was introduced sometime during the Han dynasty, it did not flourish in China until the Six Dynasties period (220-589 CE). The first documented Buddhist texts translated into Chinese are those of the Parthian (148-180 CE). The first known scriptural texts are translations into Chinese by the Kushan monk  in, between 178 and 189 CE. Early translators faced the difficulty of communicating foreign Buddhist concepts to the Chinese, and often used terminology to explain them. This has been called "". Later translators such as (334–413 CE) improved the translation methods of Chinese Buddhism considerably.

Some of the earliest known Buddhist artifacts found in China are small statues on "money trees", dated c. 200 CE, in typical Gandhāran drawing style. In the period between 460-525 CE during the, the Chinese constructed , and the which include some impressive monumental sculptures. In the fifth century, Chinese Buddhists also developed new schools and traditions, such as the school, the  school, the  school and.

Buddhism continued to grow during the early (618–907). It was during this dynasty that the Chinese monk traveled to India, bringing back 657 Buddhist texts along with relics and statues. He established a famed translation school in the Tang capital of (today's ), focusing on  school texts. Also during the Tang, was introduced from India. The Tang dynasty also saw the growth of (Zen), with the great Zen masters such as  and. In the later Tang, Chinese Buddhism suffered a setback during the of 845.

Buddhism recovered during the (960–1279), which is known as the "golden age" of Chan. During this period Chinese Chan influenced Korean and Japanese Buddhism. Buddhism also became popular during this period and was often practiced together with Chan. It was also during the Song that the entire Chinese canon was printed using over 130,000 wooden printing blocks.

During the, became the state religion. During the (1368-1644), the Chan school became the dominant tradition in China and all monks were affiliated with Chan. In the 17th century, Buddhism was spread to by Chinese immigrants.

Vietnam
There is disagreement on when exactly Buddhism arrived in. Buddhism may have arrived as early as the 3rd or 2nd century BCE via India, or alternatively during the 1st or 2nd century from China. Whatever the case, had been established by the second century CE in Vietnam. By the 9th century, both and  (Zen) were major Vietnamese Buddhist schools. In the southern, Hinduism, Theravada, and Mahayana were all practiced until the 15th century, when an invasion from the north led to the dominance of Chinese-based forms of Buddhism. However Theravada Buddhism continues to exist in the south of Vietnam. Vietnamese Buddhism is thus very similar to Chinese Buddhism and to some extent reflects the structure of Chinese Buddhism after the Song Dynasty. Vietnamese Buddhism also has a symbiotic relationship with Taoism, Chinese spirituality and the native Vietnamese religion.

Korea
Buddhism was introduced to the beginning around 372 CE. During the 6th century, many Korean monks traveled to China and India to study Buddhism and various Korean Buddhist schools developed. Buddhism prospered in Korea during the period (688-926) when it became a dominant force in society. Buddhism continued to be popular in the period (918-1392), in particular Seon  Buddhism. However, during the Yi Dynasty of the, Buddhism faced a reversal of fortunes beginning with the confiscation of monastery lands, the closing of monasteries and the ban on ordination by aristocrats in the 15th century.

Japan
Buddhism was introduced to Japan in the 6th century by Korean monks bearing sutras and an image of the Buddha. During the (710–794), emperor  ordered the building of temples throughout his realm. Numerous temples and monasteries were built in the capital city of, such as the five-story and Golden Hall of the , or the  temple. There was also a proliferation of Buddhist sects in the capital city of, known as the Nanto Rokushū (the Six Nara Sects). The most influential of these being the school (from the Chinese ).

During the late Nara, the key figures of (774–835) and  (767–822) founded the influential Japanese schools of  and, respectively. An important doctrine for these schools was (innate awakening or original enlightenment), a doctrine which was influential for all subsequent Japanese Buddhism. Buddhism also influenced the Japanese religion of, which incorporated Buddhist elements.

During the later (1185-1333), there were six new Buddhist schools founded which competed with the older Nara schools and are known as "New Buddhism" or Kamakura Buddhism. They include the influential  schools of  (1133–1212) and  (1173–1263), the Rinzai and Soto schools of Zen founded by  (1141–1215) and  (1200–1253) as well as the Lotus Sutra school of  (1222–1282).

was especially productive between the 8th and 13th centuries during (710-794),  (794-1185) and  (1185-1333). Buddhism, especially Zen, remained culturally influential during the (1333–1573) and the  (1603–1867).

Southeast Asian Buddhism
Since around 500 BCE, the culture of India has exerted influence on n countries. Land and maritime trade routes linked India with the region and both Hindu and Buddhist beliefs became influential there during the period of the. For more than a thousand years, Indian influence was, therefore, the major factor that brought a certain level of cultural unity to the various countries of the region. The and  languages and Indian scripts, together with Theravāda and Mahāyāna Buddhism,, and , were transmitted from direct contact and through sacred texts and Indian literature such as the  and the.

From the 5th to the 13th centuries, South-East Asia saw a series of powerful states which were extremely active in the promotion of Buddhism and Buddhist art alongside Hinduism. The main Buddhist influence now came directly by sea from the Indian subcontinent, so that these empires essentially followed the Mahāyāna faith. Examples include mainland kingdoms like, the and the Thai  as well as Island kingdoms like the , the  n Empire,  and.

Buddhism monks traveled to China from the kingdom of in the 5th century CE, bringing Mahayana texts, a sign that the religion was already established in the region by this point. Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism were the main religions of the (802–1431), a state that dominated most of the South-East Asian peninsula during its time. Under the Khmer, numerous temples, both Hindu and Buddhist, were built in Cambodia and in neighboring Thailand. One of the greatest Khmer kings, (1181–1219), built large Mahāyāna Buddhist structures at  and.

In the island of, Indianized kingdoms like the  (6-7th centuries) were destinations for Chinese monks seeking out Buddhist texts. The Malay (650–1377), a maritime empire centered on the island of, adopted Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Buddhism and spread Buddhism to Java, Malaya and other regions they conquered. The Chinese Buddhist described their capital at  as a great center of Buddhist learning where the emperor supported over a thousand monks at his court. also testified to the importance of Buddhism as early as the year 671 and advised future Chinese pilgrims to spend a year or two in. studied there before travelling to as a missionary. As Srivijaya expanded, Buddhism thrived and also became part of a local that incorporated several different religions such as Hinduism and other indigenous traditions.

In the island of Java, another kingdom also promoted Mahayana Buddhist culture, the (732–1006), a major rival of Srivijaya. They are known for their monumental, especially the massive , as well as , , and. , alongside Hinduism, continued to thrive under the empire (1293–1527), but was.

Theravāda Renaissance
The lands of the and  peoples in Myanmar show extensive evidence of Theravada presence in the  and  basins from the 5th century CE onwards. Theravada Buddhism in Burma initially coexisted with other forms of Buddhism and other religions. After the decline of Buddhism in the Indian mainland, Theravada Buddhist monks from Sri Lanka mounted missionary efforts in Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos, and they were successful in converting all these regions to.

King (1044–1078); the founder of the, adopted the Theravādin Buddhist faith from Sri Lanka, building numerous Buddhist temples at his capital of. Invasions from the Burmese and the Mongols weakened Theravada in this region and it had to be reintroduced from Sri Lanka. During the Mon (1287–1552), Theravada Buddhism was the dominant religion in Burma, with strong ties to Sri Lankan Buddhism. One of their kings,, is particularly known for his reformation of from the Sri Lankan  between 1476 and 1479. Theravada remained the official religion of the subsequent Burmese (1510–1752).

During the reign of the King  (reigned c.1181–1218), Theravada Buddhism was promoted by the royal family and Sri Lankan monks, including his son Tamalinda who himself had traveled to Sri Lanka. During the 13th and 14th centuries, Theravada became the dominant religion of, and monasteries replaced the local priestly classes. The Theravāda faith was also adopted by the kingdom of  as the state religion during the reign of  (1237/1247 - 1298). Theravāda Buddhism was further reinforced during the period (14th–18th century), becoming an integral part of Thai society.

Modern period
The brought new challenges to the Buddhist religion such as the colonization of traditionally Buddhist Asian countries by Western states, which weakened the traditional political structures which supported the religion as well as criticism and competition from. Modern wars, communism, the growth of capitalism, science and regional political instability are also influential pressures on modern Buddhism.

South and Southeast Asia
In under the British,  ran all the state-approved schools and strongly criticized Buddhism. By 1865, Buddhist monks began a counter movement against Christian attacks, printing pamphlets and debating Christians in public, such as at the famous Panadura debate in 1873, which saw the monk win a debate in front of a crowd of 10,000. During this period a new form of Buddhism began to take shape, termed, which tended to see the Buddha as a simple human being and Buddhism as a rational, scientific religion. Important figures in this new movement include the American convert (1832– 1907) and   (1864–1933), who promoted Buddhist schools, lay organizations and the printing of newspapers. Dharmapala also founded the to restore the dilapidated Indian site of Bodh Gaya. Dharmapala also traveled to the UK and the USA to teach Buddhism.

This society helped usher in a, where Buddhism became popular among some Indian intellectuals. One of these was the lawyer (1891–1956), leader of the, who urged low caste Indian  to convert to Buddhism.

In, a central modern figure is (r. 1853–78), who presided over the  (1868-71) where different editions of the  where cross-checked and a final version was inscribed on. A new meditation movement arose, called the, beginning with figures such as (1728–1816), who was instrumental in the promotion of Buddhist meditation practices. In 1956, Burmese politician presided over the, which saw monks from various Theravada countries produce a new edition of the. Recently, Buddhist monks were involved in political protest movements such as the of 2007.

, which was the only country to avoid colonization, had two important Buddhist kings, who pushed for modernization and reformation of the Buddhist sangha. They were (r. 1851–68), and his son  (r. 1868–1910), who were responsible for several key modern reforms of. Two recent Thai modernist movements are the monastic revival of the and the  movement.

From 1893,, and  were all French colonies. The Communists came to power in Laos in 1975. There was no widespread repression of the Buddhist sangha, but the communist government has sought to control the Sangha and use it as a tool to spread its ideology. In Cambodia however, the communist terror of the during 1975-9 caused much damage to the Buddhist sangha.

East Asia
The by  and the  of 1868 led to the end of feudal Japan and rapid modernization. A new form of arose as a strong competitor to Buddhism when it was adopted by the Japanese government. In 1872, the Japanese government decreed that Buddhist clerics could marry. These changes led to modernization efforts by which saw the setting up of publishing houses and the study of Western philosophy and scholarship. In the post-war period, arose, many of them influenced by Buddhism.

Chinese Buddhism meanwhile, suffered much destruction during the Christian-inspired (1850-64), but saw a modest revival during the  (1912-49). A key figure was (T’ai-hsü, 1899–1947), who is associated with the modernist  trend of Chinese Buddhism. The Communist (1966–76) led to the closing of all Buddhist monasteries and widespread destruction of Buddhist institutions. However, since 1977, there has been a general shift in the policy of the communist government, and Buddhist activity, both monastic and lay, has once again been renewed.

suffered a series of setbacks during the, occupation, and also during the. 's harsh government nevertheless offers some limited support to the sangha, but it closely controls all activity. In, Buddhism underwent a revival, with youth groups being influential and temples being rebuilt with government aid. An example of a recent modern form of Korean Buddhism is.

Central Asia
remained a traditional theocratic state (the ) with the at the head, until the Chinese. The fled the country in 1959. A was established in India, with its center at, which today contains many Buddhist monasteries. The 14th Dalai Lama has become one of the most popular Buddhist leaders in the world today.

During the Red Guard period (1966-7), Chinese communists destroyed around 6,000 monasteries in Tibet along with their art and books, an attempt to wipe out the Tibetan Buddhist culture. After 1980, Chinese repression of Tibetan Buddhism has decreased and the situation has improved with the reprinting of the and some artistic restoration. In the nearby countries of, and , continues to flourish as a major religion.

In, which also has Tibetan Buddhism as its main religion, Soviet dominance (between 1924-1990) saw much repression of Buddhism. However, Buddhism is now undergoing a revival in post-communist Mongolia, with more ordained monks and nuns, and 284 monasteries since 2009. More recent liberal attitudes towards religion has also benefited the Buddhists of and, as well as the Chinese region of.

Another modern development was the founding of the in the 17th century with  as its main religion. During the course of the 18th century, they were absorbed by the as, and remains a federal subject of Russia.

Western world
During the 19th century, Western intellectuals became more aware of Buddhism through various contacts such as colonial servants, administrators, and Christian missionaries. Sir Edwin Arnold's book-length poem  (1879), a life of the Buddha, was a successful early publication on Buddhism that led to much interest among English speaking middle classes. The work of western like  (1854–1920),  (1843– 1922) and  was also influential in introducing Buddhism to western audiences.

The late 19th century also saw the first-known modern western conversions to Buddhism, including leading Theosophists and  in 1880 in. The Theosophical Society was very influential in popularizing Indian religions in the west. The 19th century also saw the first western monastics such as, and the German  (1878–1956).

Another important element leading to the growth of Buddhism in the west was the large scale immigration of Chinese and Japanese to the United States and Canada in the late 19th century. Refugees from Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia have also immigrated to west, beginning in 1975. Asian Buddhists such as, , and  were influential in teaching  in the West in the 20th century. opened the  (1961) and the  (1967).

The has also been active in promoting Tibetan Buddhism in the West. All of the four major Tibetan Buddhist schools have a presence and have attracted converts. Among its prominent exponents have been, and. The number of its adherents is estimated to be between ten and twenty million.

The Theravada tradition has established various temples in the West, especially among immigrant communities in the USA. Theravada meditation was also established in the West, through the founding of institutions like the  in 1975. The has also established communities in the USA and in the. In the UK, the arose as a new modern Buddhist movement.

In, interest in Buddhism also increased during the late 20th century, with an exponential increase in. In and Spain, Tibetan Buddhism has the largest following. Tibetan, East Asian and Theravada traditions are now also present and active in and. Tibetan and Zen Buddhism also have established a small presence in, , , and.

The expansion of Buddhism to the west in the 20th century has made the religion a worldwide phenomenon.