Islam

The history of Islam concerns the political, social, economic and developments of. Despite concerns about the reliability of early sources, most historians believe that Islam originated in and  at the start of the 7th century CE, approximately 600 years after the founding of. s, however, believe that it did not start with, but that it was the original faith of others whom they regard as , such as , , , , and.

In 610, began receiving what Muslims consider to be divine revelations. Muhammad's message and was met with. In 622, a few years after losing protection with the death of his influential uncle, Muhammad (now known as Medina). With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would.

By the, the extended from  in the west to the  in the east. Polities such as those ruled by the Umayyads (in the and later in ),, , and s were among the most influential powers in the world. The gave rise to many centers of culture and  and produced notable, ,  and  during the Middle Ages.

By the early, the conquered much of the northern , while Turkic dynasties like the  and  conquered much of Anatolia from the Byzantine Empire throughout the 11th and 12th centuries. In the 13th and 14th centuries, destructive and those of  from the East, along with the loss of population in the, greatly weakened the traditional centers of the Islamic world, stretching from  to. was gradually conquered by Christian forces during the. Nonetheless, in the, the Islamic -- the ,  and  -- emerged as great world powers. During the and early  centuries, most of the  fell under the influence or direct control of an "." Their efforts to win independence and build modern nation-states over the course of the last two centuries continue to reverberate to the present day, as well as fuel conflict-zones in regions such as, , , , and.

Timeline
The following timeline can serve as a rough visual guide to the most important polities in the Islamic world prior to the. It covers major historical centers of power and culture, including, (modern ),  (modern ),  (modern , ,  and ), ,  (north-west Africa),  ,  ,  (including modern   and ), and  (modern ). It is necessarily an approximation, since rule over some regions was sometimes divided among different centers of power, and authority in larger polities was often distributed among several dynasties. For example, during the later stages of the, even the capital city of was effectively ruled by other dynasties such as the  and the , while the  commonly delegated executive authority over outlying provinces to local potentates, such as the s of Algiers, the , and the.


 * Dates are approximate, consult particular articles for details.

Early sources
The study of the earliest periods in Islamic history is made difficult by a lack of sources. For example, the most important historiographical source for the origins of Islam is the work of. While was an excellent historian by the standards of his time and place, use of his work as a source is problematic for two reasons. For one, his style of historical writing permitted liberal use of mythical, legendary, stereotyped, distorted, and polemical presentations of its subject matter. Second, al-Tabari's descriptions of the beginning of Islam post-date the events by a large amount of time, al-Tabari having died in 923.

Differing views about how to deal with the available sources has led to the development of four different approaches to the history of early Islam. All four methods have some level of support today. The descriptive method uses the outlines of Islamic traditions, while being adjusted for the stories of miracles and faith-centred claims within those sources. and represent some of the first historians following the descriptive method. On the  method, a comparison of all the sources is sought in order to identify which informants to the sources are weak and thereby distinguish spurious material. The work of and that of  are two source critical examples. On the  method, the sources are believed to be based on oral traditions with unclear origins and transmission history, and so are treated very cautiously. was the pioneer of the tradition critical method, and gives a contemporary example. The skeptical method doubts nearly all of the material in the traditional sources, regarding any possible historical core as too difficult to decipher from distorted and fabricated material. An early example of the sceptical method was the work of.

Nowadays, the popularity of the different methods employed varies on the scope of the works under consideration. For overview treatments of the history of early Islam, the descriptive approach is more popular. For scholars who look at the beginnings of Islam in depth, the source critical and tradition critical methods are more often followed.

After the 8th century, the quality of sources improves. Those sources which treated earlier times with a large temporal and cultural gap now begin to give accounts which are more contemporaneous, the quality of genre of available historical accounts improves, and new documentary sources—such as official documents, correspondence and poetry—appear. For the time prior to the beginning of Islam—in the 6th century—sources are superior as well, if still of mixed quality. In particular, the sources covering the realm of influence in the 6th century are poor, while the sources for Byzantine areas at the time are of a respectable quality, and complemented by  sources for Syria and Iraq.

Islamic origins
Islam arose within the context of. The second half of the sixth century saw political disorder in Arabia, and communication routes were no longer secure. played an important role in the crisis. became the dominant religion of the in Yemen after about 380, while  took root in the. While much of Arabia remained polytheistic, in line with broader trends of the age there was yearning for a more spiritual form of religion. Many were reluctant to convert to a foreign faith, but those faiths provided intellectual and spiritual reference points, and Jewish and Christian loanwords from began to replace the old pagan vocabulary of  throughout the peninsula. On the eve of the Islamic era, the was the chief tribe of Mecca and a dominant force in western Arabia. To counter the effects of anarchy, they upheld the institution of "sacred months" when all violence was forbidden and travel was safe. The polytheistic shrine in Mecca and the surrounding area was a popular pilgrimage destination, which had significant economic consequences for the city.

According to tradition, the Islamic prophet Muhammad was born in Mecca around the year 570. His family belonged to the. When he was about forty years old he began receiving what Muslims regard as divine revelations delivered through the angel, which would later form the. These inspirations enjoined him to proclaim a strict, to warn his compatriots of the impending , and to castigate social injustices of his city. Muhammad's message won over a handful of followers and was met with increasing opposition from notables of Mecca. In 622, a few years after losing protection with the death of his influential uncle, Muhammad migrated to the city of Yathrib (subsequently called Medina) where he was joined by his followers. Later generations would count this event, known as the, as the start of the Islamic era.

In Yathrib, where he was accepted as an arbitrator among the different communities of the city under the terms of the, Muhammad began to lay the foundations of the new Islamic society, with the help of new Quranic verses which provided guidance on matters of law and religious observance. The s of this period emphasized his place among the of Biblical prophets, but also differentiated the message of the Quran from Christianity and Judaism. Armed conflict with Meccans and of the Yathrib area soon broke out. After a series of military confrontations and political manoeuvres, Muhammad was able to and allegiance of the Quraysh in 629. In the time remaining until his death in 632, tribal chiefs across the peninsula entered into various agreements with him, some under terms of alliance, others acknowledging his prophethood and agreeing to follow Islamic practices, including paying the to his government, which consisted of a number of deputies, an army of believers, and a public treasury. A few months before his death, Muhammad. The final verse of the Quran (Chapter 5, Verse 3) was revealed after Muhammad finished his sermon. After the sermon, Muhammad ordered the Muslims to pledge allegiance to ; the future Sunni leaders, , and were among those who pledged allegiance to Ali at this event.

Rashidun Caliphate
After Muhammad died, a series of four Caliphs governed the Islamic state: (632–634),  (Umar І, 634–644),, (644–656), and  (656–661). These leaders are known as the "" or "rightly guided" Caliphs in. They oversaw the initial phase of the, advancing through , , , and.

After Muhammad's death,, one of his closest associates, was chosen as the first (خَليفة khalīfah, lit. successor). Although the office of caliph retained an aura of religious authority, it laid no claim to prophecy. A number of tribal leaders refused to extend agreements made with Muhammad to Abu Bakr, ceasing payments of the alms levy and in some cases claiming to be prophets in their own right. Abu Bakr asserted his authority in a successful military campaign known as the, whose momentum was carried into the lands of the and  empires. By the end of the reign of the second caliph, Umar I, Arab armies, whose battle-hardened ranks were now swelled by the defeated rebels and former imperial auxiliary troops, conquered the Byzantine provinces of Syria and Egypt, while the Sassanids, with the rest to follow.

Umar improved administration of the fledgling empire, ordering improvement of irrigation networks and playing a role in foundation of cities like. To be close to the poor, he lived in a simple mud hut without doors and walked the streets every evening. After consulting with the poor, Umar established the, a welfare institution for the Muslim and non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The Bayt al-mal ran for hundreds of years under the in the 7th century and continued through the  period and well into the Abbasid era. Umar also introduced child benefit for the children and pensions for the elderly. When he felt that a governor or a commander was becoming attracted to wealth or did not meet the required administrative standards, he had him removed from his position. The expansion was partially halted between 638–639 during the years of great famine and plague in Arabia and, respectively, but by the end of Umar's reign, Syria, , Mesopotamia, and much of were incorporated into the Islamic State.

Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, who lived as religious minorities and were taxed (while Muslims paid "Zakat") to finance the Byzantine–Sassanid Wars, often aided Muslims to take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests. As new areas were conquered, they also benefited from free trade with other areas of the growing Islamic state, where, to encourage commerce, taxes were applied to wealth rather than trade. The Muslims paid on their wealth for the benefit of the poor. Since the, drafted by the , the Jews and the Christians continued to use their own laws and had their own judges. To assist in the quick expansion of the state, the Byzantine and the Persian tax collection systems were maintained and the people paid a poll tax lower than the one imposed under the Byzantines and the Persians.

In 639, Umar appointed as the governor of Syria after the previous governor died in a plague along with 25,000 other people. To stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea during the, in 649 Muawiyah set up a navy, manned by , and  sailors and Muslim troops, which defeated the Byzantine navy at the  in 655, opening up the Mediterranean to Muslim ships.

Early Muslim armies stayed in encampments away from cities because Umar feared that they may get attracted to wealth and luxury, moving away from the worship of God, accumulating wealth and establishing dynasties. Staying in these encampments away from the cities also ensured that there was no stress on the local populations which could remain autonomous. Some of these encampments later grew into cities like and  in Iraq and  in Egypt.

When Umar was assassinated in 644, second cousin and twice son-in-law of Muhammad  became the next caliph. As the Arabic language is written without vowels, speakers of different Arabic dialects and other languages recited the Quran with phonetic variations that could alter the meaning of the text. When Uthman ibn Affan became aware of this, he ordered a standard copy of the Quran to be prepared. Begun during his reign, the was finished some time between 650 and 656, and copies were sent out to the different centers of the expanding Islamic empire.

After Muhammad's death, the old tribal differences between the Arabs started to resurface. Following the and the  deep-rooted differences between Iraq (formerly under the Persian ) and Syria (formerly under the ) also existed. Each wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in their area.

As became very old,, a relative of Muawiyah, slipped into the vacuum, becoming his secretary and slowly assuming more control. When Uthman was assassinated in 656,, a cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, assumed the position of caliph and moved the capital to Kufa in Iraq. Muawiyah I, the governor of Syria, and Marwan I demanded arrest of the culprits. Marwan I manipulated every one and created conflict, which resulted in the (the "First Fitna"). Ali was assassinated by in 661. Six months later in 661, in the interest of peace, Ali's son, made a peace treaty with Muawiyah I. In the , Hasan ibn Ali handed over power to Muawiya on the condition that he would be just to the people and not establish a dynasty after his death. Muawiyah subsequently broke the conditions of the agreement and established the, with a capital in. , by then Muhammad's only living grandson, refused to swear allegiance to the Umayyads. He was killed in the the same year, in an event still mourned by Shia on the. Unrest, called the continued, but Muslim rule was extended under Muawiyah to, , , , and , and expanded in. In 664, Arab armies conquered, and in 665 pushed into the.

Umayyad Caliphate
The Umayyad dynasty (or Ommiads), whose name derives from, the great-grandfather of the first Umayyad caliph, ruled from 661 to 750. Although the Umayyad family came from the city of, was the capital. After the death of in 666,  consolidated his power. Muawiyah I moved his capital to Damascus from, which led to profound changes in the empire. In the same way, at a later date, the transfer of the Caliphate from Damascus to Baghdad marked the accession of a new family to power.

As the state grew, the state expenses increased. Additionally the and the Welfare State expenses to assist the Muslim and the non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled, increased, the Umayyads asked the new converts (mawali) to continue paying the poll tax. The Umayyad rule, with its wealth and luxury also seemed at odds with the Islamic message preached by Muhammad. All this increased discontent. The descendants of Muhammad's uncle rallied discontented mawali, poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of the general, inaugurating the  in 750, which moved the capital to. A branch of the family fled across North Africa to Al-Andalus, where they established the, which lasted until 1031 before falling due to the. The Bayt al-mal, the Welfare State then continued under the Abbasids.

At its largest extent, the Umayyad dynasty covered more than 5000000 sqmi making it one of the the world had yet seen, and the fifth  ever.

Muawiyah beautified Damascus, and developed a court to rival that of. He expanded the frontiers of the empire, reaching the edge of Constantinople at one point, though the drove him back and he was unable to hold any territory in. credit him with saving the fledgling Muslim nation from post- anarchy. However, accuse him of instigating the war, weakening the Muslim nation by dividing the, fabricating self-aggrandizing  slandering 's family and even selling his Muslim critics into slavery in the Byzantine empire. One of Muawiyah's most controversial and enduring legacies was his decision to designate his son Yazid as his successor. According to Shi'a doctrine, this was a clear violation of the treaty he made with Hasan ibn Ali. In 682, Yazid restored as the governor of North Africa. Uqba won battles against the and Byzantines. From there Uqba marched thousands of miles westward towards, where he reached the Atlantic coast, and then marched eastwards through the. With about 300 men, he proceeded towards Biskra where he was ambushed by a Berber force under Kaisala. Uqba and all his men died fighting. The Berbers attacked and drove Muslims from north Africa for a period. Weakened by the civil wars, the Umayyad lost supremacy at sea, and had to abandon the islands of and. Under the rule of, some Muslims in Kufa began to think that if the descendant of Muhammad was their ruler, he would have been more just. He was invited to Kufa but was later betrayed and killed. Imam Husain's son, Imam, was imprisoned along with Husain's sister and other ladies left in war. Due to opposition by public they were later released and allowed to go to their native place Medina. One Imam after another continued in the generation of Imam Husain but they were opposed by the Caliphs of the day as their rivals till Imam came in power as first Caliph of  in North Africa when Caliphate and Imamate came to same person again after Imam Ali. These Imams were recognized by Shia Islam taking Imam Ali as first Caliph/ Imam and the same is institutionalized by the and many similar institutions named now as,  etc.

The period under was marked by civil wars. This would ease in the reign of, a well-educated and capable ruler. Despite the many political problems that impeded his rule, all important records were translated into Arabic. In his reign, a for the Muslim world was minted. This led to war with the Byzantine Empire under  in 692 in. The Byzantines were decisively defeated by the Caliph after the defection of a large contingent of. The Islamic currency was then made the exclusive currency in the Muslim world. He reformed agriculture and commerce. Abd al-Malik consolidated Muslim rule and extended it, made Arabic the state language, and organized a regular. began the next stage of Islamic conquests. Under him the early Islamic empire reached its farthest extent. He reconquered parts of Egypt from the Byzantine Empire and moved on into and across to the west of North Africa. Muslim armies under crossed the  and began to  using North African  armies. The of the  were defeated when the Umayyad conquered. The Iberian Peninsula was the farthest extent of Islamic control of Europe (they were stopped at the ). In the east, Islamic armies under made it as far as the. Under Al-Walid, the caliphate empire stretched from the Iberian Peninsula to India. played a crucial role in the organization and selection of military commanders. Al-Walid paid great attention to the expansion of an organized military, building the strongest navy in the Umayyad era., This tactic was crucial for the expansion to the Iberian Peninsula. His reign is considered to be the apex of Islamic power.

was hailed as caliph the day al-Walid died. He appointed governor of. Sulayman ordered the arrest and execution of the family of, one of two prominent leaders (the other was ) who had supported the succession of al-Walid's son Yazid, rather than Sulayman. Al-Hajjaj had predeceased al-Walid, so he posed no threat. Qutaibah renounced allegiance to Sulayman, though his troops rejected his appeal to revolt. They killed him and sent his head to Sulayman. Sulayman did not move to on becoming Caliph, remaining in. Sulayman sent to attack the Byzantine capital. The intervention of on the Byzantine side proved decisive. The Muslims sustained heavy losses. Sulayman died suddenly in 717.

came to power on the death of Umar II. Yazid fought the Kharijites, with whom Umar had been negotiating, and killed the Kharijite leader Shawdhab. In Yazid's reign, civil wars began in different parts of the empire. Yazid expanded the Caliphate's territory into the Caucasus, before dying in 724. Inheriting the caliphate from his brother, ruled an empire with many problems. He was effective in addressing these problems, and in allowing the Umayyad empire to continue as an entity. His long rule was an effective one, and renewed reforms introduced by Umar II. Under Hisham's rule, regular raids against the Byzantines continued. In North Africa, Kharijite teachings combined with local restlessness to produce the. He was also faced with a revolt by. Hisham suppressed both revolts. The Abbasids continued to gain power in Khurasan and Iraq. However, they were not strong enough to make a move yet. Some were caught and punished or executed by eastern governors. The, a decisive Byzantine victory, was during the final campaign of the Umayyad dynasty. Hisham died in 743.

saw political intrigue during his reign. spoke out against his cousin Walid's "immorality" which included discrimination on behalf of the and, and Yazid received further support from the Qadariya and Murji'iya (believers in human ). Walid was shortly thereafter deposed in a. Yazid disbursed funds from the treasury and acceded to the Caliph. He explained that he had rebelled on behalf of the and the Sunna. Yazid reigned for only six months, while various groups refused allegiance and dissident movements arose, after which he died. , named heir apparent by his brother Yazid III, ruled for a short time in 744, before he abdicated. ruled from 744 until he was killed in 750. He was the last Umayyad ruler to rule from Damascus. Marwan named his two sons Ubaydallah and Abdallah heirs. He appointed governors and asserted his authority by force. Anti-Umayyad feeling was very prevalent, especially in Iran and Iraq. The Abbasids had gained much support. Marwan's reign as caliph was almost entirely devoted to trying to keep the Umayyad empire together. His death signalled the end of Umayyad rule in the East, and was followed by the massacre of Umayyads by the Abbasids. Almost the entire Umayyad dynasty was killed, except for the talented prince who escaped to the Iberian Peninsula and founded a dynasty there.

Islamic world during the Abbasid Caliphate
The dynasty rose to power in 750, consolidating the gains of the earlier s. Initially, they conquered  including the  and, after, in 827 the. The had come to power on the wave of dissatisfaction with the Umayyads, cultivated by the Abbasid revolutionary. Under the Abbasids Islamic civilization flourished. Most notable was the development of Arabic and, termed by The Cambridge History of Islam as its "". Commerce and industry (considered a ) and the and sciences (considered a ) also prospered under Abbasid caliphs  (ruled 754–775),  (ruled 786–809),  (ruled 809–813) and their immediate successors.

The capital was moved from Damascus to, due to the importance placed by the Abbasids upon eastern affairs in and. At this time the caliphate showed signs of fracture amid the rise of regional dynasties. Although the Umayyad family had been killed by the revolting Abbasids, one family member,, escaped to Spain and established an independent caliphate there in 756. In the, Harun al-Rashid appointed the Arab s as virtually autonomous rulers, although they continued to recognise central authority. Aghlabid rule was short-lived, and they were deposed by the  dynasty in 909. By around 960, the Fatimids had conquered Abbasid Egypt, building a capital there in 973 called "al-Qahirah" (meaning "the planet of victory", known today as ). In Persia the s snatched power from the Abbasids. Abbasid influence had been consumed by the (a Muslim Turkish clan which had migrated into mainland Persia) by 1055.

Expansion continued, sometimes by force, sometimes by peaceful. The first stage in the began just before the year 1000. By some 200 (from 1193–1209) years later, the area up to the had fallen. In sub-Saharan West Africa, Islam was established just after the year 1000. Muslim rulers were in starting from sometime between 1081 and 1097, with reports of a Muslim prince at the head of  as early as 1009. The reached prominence in the 13th century.

The Abbasids developed initiatives aimed at greater Islamic unity. Different sects of the Islamic faith and mosques, separated by doctrine, history, and practice, were pushed to cooperate. The Abbasids also distinguished themselves from the Umayyads by attacking the Umayyads' moral character and administration. According to, "The Abbasid revolt was supported largely by Arabs, mainly the aggrieved settlers of Marw with the addition of the Yemeni faction and their ". The Abbasids also appealed to non-Arab Muslims, known as mawali, who remained outside the -based society of the Arabs and were perceived as a lower class within the Umayyad empire. Islamic, promoted by the Abbasids, refers to the idea of unity of the  in the literal meaning: that there was a single faith. Islamic philosophy developed as the was codified, and the four  were established. This era also saw the rise of classical. Religious achievements included completion of the canonical collections of of  and others. Islam recognized to a certain extent the validity of the s, the Quran identifying, s, , and "" or "baptists" (usually taken as a reference to the s and related Mesopotamian groups) as "". Toward the beginning of the high Middle Ages, the doctrines of the and, two major , solidified and the  theologically would form. These trends would continue into the Fatimid and Ayyubid periods.

Politically, the Abbasid Caliphate evolved into an Islamic (.) The regional  and  governors' existence, validity, or legality were acknowledged for unity of the state. In the of the,  presented an argument in The Decisive Treatise, providing a justification for the emancipation of science and philosophy from official  theology; thus,  has been considered a precursor to modern.

Golden Baghdad Abbasids
Early Middle Ages

According to Arab sources in the year 750,, the founder of the Abbasid Caliphate, launched a massive rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate from the province of Khurasan near Talas. After eliminating the entire Umayyad family and achieving victory at the, Al-Saffah and his forces marched into Damascus and founded a new dynasty. His forces confronted many regional powers and consolidated the realm of the Abbasid Caliphate.

In 's time, Persian scholarship emerged. Many non-Arabs converted to Islam. The Umayyads actively discouraged conversion in order to continue the collection of the jizya, or the tax on non-Muslims. Islam nearly doubled within its territory from 8% of residents in 750 to 15% by the end of Al-Mansur's reign. , whose name means "Rightly-guided" or "Redeemer", was proclaimed caliph when his father was on his deathbed. Baghdad blossomed during Al-Mahdi's reign, becoming the world's largest city. It attracted immigrants from Arabia, Iraq, Syria, Persia and as far away as India and Spain. Baghdad was home to Christians, Jews, Hindus, and Zoroastrians, in addition to the growing Muslim population. Like his father, was open to his people and allowed citizens to address him in the palace at Baghdad. He was considered an "enlightened ruler", and continued the policies of his Abbasid predecessors. His short rule was plagued by military conflicts and internal intrigue.

The military conflicts subsided as ruled. His reign was marked by scientific, cultural and religious prosperity. He established the library ("House of Wisdom"), and the arts and music flourished during his reign. The family played a decisive advisorial role in establishing the Caliphate, but declined during Rashid's rule.

received the Caliphate from his father Harun Al-Rashid, but failed to respect the arrangements made for his brothers, leading to the. 's general, executing Al-Amin. The war led to a loss of prestige for the dynasty.

Rise of regional powers
The Abbasids soon became caught in a three-way rivalry among ic Arabs, s, and immigrant Turks. In addition, the cost of running a large empire became too great. The Turks, Egyptians, and Arabs adhered to the Sunnite sect; the Persians, a great portion of the Turkic groups, and several of the princes in India were Shia. The political unity of Islam began to disintegrate. Under the influence of the Abbasid caliphs, independent dynasties appeared in the Muslim world and the caliphs recognized such dynasties as legitimately Muslim. The first was the in, which was founded during the caliph 's reign. Similar dynasties included the, , and. During this time, advancements were made in the areas of astronomy, poetry, philosophy, science, and mathematics.

High Baghdad Abbasids
Early Middle Ages

Upon Al-Amin's death, became Caliph. Al-Ma'mun extended the Abbasid empire's territory during his reign and dealt with rebellions. Al-Ma'mun had been named governor of Khurasan by Harun, and after his ascension to power, the caliph named Tahir as governor of his military services in order to assure his loyalty. Tahir and his family became entrenched in Iranian politics and became powerful, frustrating Al-Ma'mun's desire to centralize and strengthen Caliphal power. The rising power of the became a threat as Al-Ma'mun's own policies alienated them and other opponents.

Al-Ma'mun worked to centralize power and ensure a smooth succession. Al-Mahdi proclaimed that the caliph was the protector of Islam against heresy, and also claimed the ability to declare orthodoxy. Religious scholars averred that Al-Ma'mun was overstepping his bounds in the , the which he introduced in 833 four months before he died. The  emerged as a force in Islamic politics during Al-Ma'mun's reign for opposing the inquisitions. The Ulema and the major Islamic law schools took shape in the period of Al-Ma'mun. In parallel, Sunnism became defined as a religion of laws. Doctrinal differences between Sunni and Shi'a Islam became more pronounced.

During the Al-Ma'mun regime, s increased. Al-Ma'mun made preparations for a major campaign, but died while leading an expedition in. Al-Ma'mun gathered scholars of many religions at Baghdad, whom he treated well and with tolerance. He sent an emissary to the Byzantine Empire to collect the most famous manuscripts there, and had them translated into Arabic. His scientists originated. Shortly before his death, during a visit to Egypt in 832, the caliph ordered the breaching of the to search for knowledge and treasure. Workers tunnelled in near where tradition located the original entrance. Al-Ma'mun later died near Tarsus under questionable circumstances and was succeeded by his half-brother,, rather than his son, Al-Abbas ibn Al-Ma'mun.

As Caliph, Al-Mu'tasim promptly ordered the dismantling of al-Ma'mun's military base at Tyana. He faced Khurramite revolts. One of the most difficult problems facing this Caliph was the ongoing uprising of Babak Khorramdin. Al-Mu'tasim overcame the rebels and secured a significant victory. launched an attack against Abbasid fortresses. Al-Mu'tasim sent Al-Afshin, who met and defeated Theophilus' forces at the. On his return he became aware of a serious military conspiracy which forced him and his successors to rely upon Turkish commanders and slave-soldiers (foreshadowing the  system). The Khurramiyyah were never fully suppressed, although they slowly declined during the reigns of succeeding Caliphs. Near the end of al-Mu'tasim's life there was an uprising in Palestine, but he defeated the rebels.

During Al-Mu'tasim's reign, the Tahirid dynasty continued to grow in power. The Tahirids were exempted from many tribute and oversight functions. Their independence contributed to Abbasid decline in the east. Ideologically, al-Mu'tasim followed his half-brother al-Ma'mun. He continued his predecessor's support for the Islamic Mu'tazila sect, applying brutal torture against the opposition. Arab mathematician was employed by Al-Mu'tasim and tutored the Caliph's son. Al-Kindi had served at the House of Wisdom and continued his studies in Greek geometry and algebra under the caliph's patronage.

succeeded his father. Al-Wathiq dealt with opposition in Arabia, Syria, Palestine and in Baghdad. Using a famous sword he personally joined the execution of the Baghdad rebels. The revolts were the result of an increasingly large gap between Arab populations and the Turkish armies. The revolts were put down, but antagonism between the two groups grew, as Turkish forces gained power. He also secured a captive exchange with the Byzantines. Al-Wathiq was a patron of scholars, as well as artists. He personally had musical talent and is reputed to have composed over one hundred songs.

When Al-Wathiq died of high fever, succeeded him. Al-Mutawakkil's reign is remembered for many reforms and is viewed as a golden age. He was the last great Abbasid caliph; after his death the dynasty fell into decline. Al-Mutawakkil ended the Mihna. Al-Mutawakkil built the as part of an extension of Samarra eastwards. During his reign, Al-Mutawakkil met famous Byzantine theologian, who was sent to strengthen diplomatic relations between the Empire and the Caliphate by. Al-Mutawakkil involved himself in religious debates, as reflected in his actions against minorities. The Shīʻi faced repression embodied in the destruction of the, an action that was ostensibly carried out to stop pilgrimages. Al-Mutawakkil continued to rely on Turkish statesmen and slave soldiers to put down rebellions and lead battles against foreign empires, notably capturing Sicily from the Byzantines. Al-Mutawakkil was assassinated by a Turkish soldier.

succeeded to the Caliphate on the same day with the support of the Turkish faction, though he was implicated in the murder. The Turkish party had al-Muntasir remove his brothers from the line of succession, fearing revenge for the murder of their father. Both brothers wrote statements of abdication. During his reign, Al-Muntasir removed the ban on pilgrimage to the tombs of Hassan and Hussayn and sent Wasif to raid the Byzantines. Al-Muntasir died of unknown causes. The Turkish chiefs held a council to select his successor, electing. The Arabs and western troops from Baghdad were displeased at the choice and attacked. However, the Caliphate no longer depended on Arabian choice, but depended on Turkish support. After the failed Muslim campaign against the Christians, people blamed the Turks for bringing disaster on the faith and murdering their Caliphs. After the Turks besieged Baghdad, Al-Musta'in planned to abdicate to but was put to death by his order. Al-Mu'tazz was enthroned by the Turks, becoming the youngest Abbasaid Caliph to assume power.

Al-Mu'tazz proved too apt a pupil of his Turkish masters, but was surrounded by parties jealous of each other. At, the Turks were having problems with the "Westerns" (Berbers and s), while the Arabs and Persians at Baghdad, who had supported al-Musta'in, regarded both with equal hatred. Al-Mu'tazz put his brothers Al-Mu'eiyyad and Abu Ahmed to death. The ruler spent recklessly, causing a revolt of Turks, Africans, and Persians for their pay. Al-Mu'tazz was brutally deposed shortly thereafter. became the next Caliph. He was firm and virtuous compared to the earlier Caliphs, though the Turks held the power. The Turks killed him soon after his ascension. followed, holding on for 23 years, though he was largely a ruler in name only. After the, Al-Mu'tamid summoned to help him. Thereafter, Al-Muwaffaq ruled in all but name. The was founded by  when he was appointed governor of  in Anatolia by the Caliphs in 890. Al-Mu'tamid later transferred authority to his son,, and never regained power. The became the first independent state in Islamic Egypt, when they broke away during this time.

Al-Mu'tadid ably administered the Caliphate. Egypt returned to allegiance and Mesopotamia was restored to order. He was tolerant towards Shi'i, but toward the Umayyad community he was not so just. Al-Mu'tadid was cruel in his punishments, some of which are not surpassed by those of his predecessors. For example, the Kharijite leader at Mosul was paraded about Baghdad clothed in a robe of silk, of which Kharijites denounced as sinful, and then crucified. Upon Al-Mu'tadid's death, his son by a Turkish slave-girl,, succeeded to the throne.

Al-Muktafi became a favourite of the people for his generosity, and for abolishing his father's secret prisons, the terror of Baghdad. During his reign, the Caliphate overcame threats such as the. Upon Al-Muktafi's death, the vazir next chose. Al-Muqtadir's reign was a constant succession of thirteen Vazirs, one rising on the fall or assassination of another. His long reign brought the Empire to its lowest ebb. Africa was lost, and Egypt nearly. Mosul threw off its dependence, and the Greeks raided across the undefended border. The East continued to formally recognise the Caliphate, including those who virtually claimed independence.

At the end of the Early Baghdad Abbasids period, Empress pressed for an armistice with Al-Muqtadir and arranged for the ransom of the Muslim prisoner while the Byzantine frontier was threatened by Bulgarians. This only added to Baghdad's disorder. Though despised by the people, Al-Muqtadir was again placed in power after upheavals. Al-Muqtadir was eventually slain outside the city gates, whereupon courtiers chose his brother. He was even worse. Refusing to abdicate, he was blinded and cast into prison.

His son took over only to experience a cascade of misfortune. Praised for his piety, he became the tool of the de facto ruling Minister, (; 'Amir of the Amirs'). Ibn Raik held the reins of government and his name was joined with the Caliph's in public prayers. Around this period, the s, supported by popular sentiment, set up in fact a kind of 'Sunni inquisition'. Ar-Radi is commonly regarded as the last of the real Caliphs: the last to deliver orations at the Friday service, to hold assemblies, to commune with philosophers, to discuss the questions of the day, to take counsel on the affairs of State; to distribute, or to temper the severity of cruel officers. Thus ended the Early Baghdad Abbasids.

In the late mid-930s, the of Egypt carried the Arabic title "Wali" reflecting their position as governors on behalf of the Abbasids, The first governor  was installed by the Abbasid Caliph. They gave him and his descendants the Wilayah for 30 years. The last name Ikhshid is Soghdian for "prince".

Also in the 930s, and his two younger brothers,  and  founded the. Originally a soldier in the service of the of, ‘Alī was able to recruit an army to defeat a Turkish general from  named Yāqūt in 934. Over the next nine years the three brothers gained control of the remainder of the caliphate, while accepting the titular authority of the caliph in Baghdad. The Būyids made large territorial gains. and were conquered. Central Iraq submitted in 945, before the Būyids took (967),  (967), the  (979), Ṭabaristān (980), and  (981). After this the Būyids went into slow decline, with pieces of the confederation gradually breaking off and local dynasties under their rule becoming de facto independent.

Middle Baghdad Abbasids
Early High Middle Ages

At the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the Caliphate had become of little importance. The amir al-umara contented himself with dispatching his secretary to Baghdad to assemble local dignitaries to elect a successor. The choice fell on. Bajkam was killed on a hunting party by marauding Kurds. In the ensuing anarchy in Baghdad, Ibn Raik persuaded the Caliph to flee to Mosul where he was welcomed by the Hamdanids. They assassinated Ibn Raik. Hamdanid advanced on Baghdad, where mercenaries and well-organised Turks repelled them. Turkish general became amir al-umara. The Turks were staunch Sunnis. A fresh conspiracy placed the Caliph in danger. Hamdanid troops helped ad-Daula escape to Mosul and then to Nasibin. Tuzun and the Hamdanid were stalemated. Al-Muttaqi was at, moving to Tuzun where he was deposed. Tuzun installed the blinded Caliph's cousin as successor, with the title of. With the new Caliph, Tuzun attacked the and the. Soon after, Tuzun died, and was succeeded by one of his generals, Abu Ja'far. The Buwayhids then attacked Baghdad, and Abu Ja'far fled into hiding with the Caliph. Buwayhid Sultan Muiz ud-Daula assumed command forcing the Caliph into abject submission to the Amir. Eventually, Al-Mustakfi was blinded and deposed. The city fell into chaos, and the Caliph's palace was looted.

Once the Buwayhids controlled Baghdad, became caliph. The office was shorn of real power and Shi'a observances were established. The Buwayhids held on Baghdad for over a century. Throughout the Buwayhid reign the Caliphate was at its lowest ebb, but was recognized religiously, except in. Buwayhid Sultan was prevented from raising a Shi'a Caliph to the throne by fear for his own safety, and fear of rebellion, in the capital and beyond.

The next Caliph,, reigned over factional strife in Syria among the Fatimids, Turks, and Carmathians. The Hideaway dynasyty also fractured. The Abbasid borders were the defended only by small border states. , the Buyid amir of Iraq, deposed al-Ta'i in 991 and proclaimed the new caliph.

During al-Qadir's Caliphate, looked after the empire. Mahmud of Ghazni, of Eastern fame, was friendly towards the Caliphs, and his victories in the Indian Empire were accordingly announced from the pulpits of Baghdad in grateful and glowing terms. Al-Qadir fostered the Sunni struggle against Shiʿism and outlawed heresies such as the and the doctrine that the Quran was created. He outlawed the, bringing an end to the development of rationalist Muslim philosophy. During this and the next period,, especially , flourished under the patronage of the Buwayhids. By 1000, the global Muslim population had climbed to about 4 percent of the world, compared to the Christian population of 10 percent.

During 's reign, the Buwayhid ruler often fled the capital and the Seljuq dynasty gained power. overran Syria and Armenia. He then made his way into the Capital, where he was well-received both by chiefs and people. In, the Qarmatian state collapsed in. Arabia recovered from the Fatimids and again acknowledged the spiritual jurisdiction of the Abbasids. was honoured by the Seljuq Sultan, during whose reign the Caliphate was recognized throughout the extending range of Seljuq conquest. The Sultan was critical of the Caliph's interference in affairs of state, but died before deposing the last of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids.

Late Baghdad Abbasids
Late High Middle Ages

The Late Baghdad Abbasids reigned from the beginning of the to the. The first Caliph was. He was politically irrelevant, despite civil strife at home and the in Syria. attempted to attack Baghdad, losing at the. The global Muslim population climbed to about 5 per cent as against the Christian population of 11 per cent by 1100. was captured by crusaders who massacred its inhabitants. Preachers travelled throughout the caliphate proclaiming the tragedy and rousing men to recover the from the  (European Crusaders). Crowds of exiles rallied for war against the. Neither the Sultan nor the Caliph sent an army west.

achieved more independence while the sultan was engaged in war in the East. The (Mazyadid State) general, Dubays ibn Sadaqa (emir of ), plundered  and attacked Baghdad together with a young brother of the sultan,. Dubays was crushed by a Seljuq army under, founder of the. Mahmud's death was followed by a civil war between his son Dawud, his nephew Mas'ud and the atabeg Toghrul II. Zengi was recalled to the East, stimulated by the Caliph and Dubays, where he was beaten. The Caliph then laid siege to Mosul for three months without success, resisted by Mas'ud and Zengi. It was nonetheless a milestone in the caliphate's military revival.

After the siege of Damascus (1134), Zengi undertook. Al-Mustarshid attacked sultan Mas'ud of western Seljuq and was taken prisoner. He was later found murdered. His son, failed to gain independence from Seljuq Turks. Zengi, because of the murder of Dubays, set up a rival Sultanate. Mas'ud attacked; the Caliph and Zengi, hopeless of success, escaped to Mosul. The Sultan regained power, a council was held, the Caliph was deposed, and his uncle, son of, appointed as the new Caliph. Ar-Rashid fled to and was killed by Hashshashins.

Continued disunion and contests between Seljuq Turks allowed al-Muqtafi to maintain control in Baghdad and to extend it throughout Iraq. In 1139, al-Muqtafi granted protection to the patriarch. While the Crusade raged, the Caliph successfully defended Baghdad against Muhammad II of Seljuq in the. The Sultan and the Caliph dispatched men in response to Zengi's appeal, but neither the Seljuqs, nor the Caliph, nor their Amirs, dared resist the Crusaders.

The next caliph,, saw extinguish the  after 260 years, and thus the Abbasids again prevailed. reigned when Saladin become the sultan of Egypt and declared allegiance to the Abbasids.

, "The Victor for the Religion of God", attempted to restore the Caliphate to its ancient dominant role. He consistently held Iraq from Tikrit to the Gulf without interruption. His forty-seven year reign was chiefly marked by ambitious and corrupt dealings with the Tartar chiefs, and by his hazardous invocation of the Mongols, which ended his dynasty. His son,, was Caliph for a short period before his death and An-Nasir's grandson, , was made caliph.

Al-Mustansir founded the. In 1236 commanded to raise up  and populated. The Mongol military governors mostly made their camp in, Azerbaijan. The rulers of and  surrendered. Chormaqan divided the region into three districts based on military hierarchy. In Georgia, the population were temporarily divided into eight. By 1237 the Mongol Empire had subjugated most of Persia, excluding Iraq and  strongholds, and all of  and.

was the last Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad and is noted for his opposition to the rise of Shajar al-Durr to the Egyptian throne during the Seventh Crusade. To the east, Mongol forces under swept through the  and. and the caliph deposed soon afterwards. The Mamluk sultans and Syria later appointed a powerless Abbasid Caliph in Cairo.

Cairo Abbasid Caliphs
Abbasid "shadow" caliph of Cairo

Late Middle Ages

The Abbasid "shadow" caliph of Cairo reigned under the tutelage of the sultans and nominal rulers used to legitimize the actual rule of the Mamluk sultans. All the Cairene Abbasid caliphs who preceded or succeeded were spiritual heads lacking any temporal power. Al-Musta'in was the only Cairo-based Abbasid caliph to even briefly hold political power. was the last "shadow" caliph. In 1517, Ottoman sultan Selim I defeated the Mamluk Sultanate, and made Egypt part of the Ottoman Empire.

Fatimid Caliphate
The originated in  (modern-day  and eastern ). The dynasty was founded in 909 by, who legitimized his claim through descent from Muhammad by way of his daughter and her husband , the first Shīʻa , hence the name al-Fātimiyyūn "Fatimid". The Fatamids and the at the time, used the Hanafi jurisprudence, as did most Sunnis.

Abdullāh al-Mahdi's control soon extended over all of central, an area consisting of the modern countries of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, which he ruled from , his capital in Tunisia.

The Fatimids entered Egypt in the late 10th century, conquering the and founding a capital at al-Qāhira in 969. The name was a reference to the planet Mars, "The Subduer", which was prominent in the sky at the moment that city construction started. Cairo was intended as a royal enclosure for the Fatimid caliph and his army, though the actual administrative and economic capital of Egypt was in cities such as until 1169. After Egypt, the Fatimids continued to conquer surrounding areas until they ruled from Tunisia to Syria and even crossed the Mediterranean into Sicily and southern Italy.

Under the Fatimids, Egypt became the center of an empire that included at its peak North Africa, Sicily, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, the coast of Africa, Yemen and the. Egypt flourished, and the Fatimids developed an extensive trade network in both the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. Their trade and diplomatic ties extended all the way to China and its, which determined the economic course of Egypt during the.

Unlike other governments in the area, Fatimid advancement in state offices was based more on merit than heredity. Members of other branches of Islam, including Sunnis, were just as likely to be appointed to government posts as Shiites. Tolerance covered non-Muslims such as Christians and Jews; they took high levels in government based on ability. There were, however, exceptions to this general attitude of tolerance, notably.

The Fatimid palace was in two parts. It was in the area at Bin El-Quasryn street.

Fatimid caliphs
Early and High Middle Ages


 * Also see: (above)

During the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the Fatimid Caliphs claimed spiritual supremacy not only in Egypt, but also contested the religious leadership of Syria. At the beginning of the Abbasid realm in Baghdad, the Alids faced severe persecution by the ruling party as they were a direct threat to the Caliphate. Owing to the Abbasid inquisitions, the forefathers opted for concealment of the Dawa's existence. Subsequently, they travelled towards the Iranian Plateau and distanced themselves from the epicenter of the political world. Al Mahdi's father, Al Husain al Mastoor returned to control the Dawa's affairs. He sent two Dai's to Yemen and Western Africa. Al Husain died soon after the birth of his son, Al Mahdi. A system of government helped update Al Mahdi on the development which took place in North Africa.

Al Mahdi established the first  of the Fatimid dynasty. He claimed genealogic origins dating as far back as Fatimah through Husayn and Ismail. Al Mahdi established his headquarters at Salamiyah and moved towards north-western Africa, under rule. His success of laying claim to being the precursor to the Mahdi was instrumental among the Berber tribes of North Africa, specifically the Kutamah tribe. Al Mahdi established himself at the former Aghlabid residence at Raqqadah, a suburb of in Tunisia. In 920, Al Mahdi took up residence at the newly established capital of the empire,. After his death, Al Mahdi was succeeded by his son, Abu Al-Qasim Muhammad Al-Qaim, who continued his expansionist policy. At the time of his death he had extended his reign to Morocco of the, as well as Egypt itself.The Fatimid Caliphate grew to include and to stretch across  from the  to. Abdullāh al-Mahdi's control soon extended over all of central, an area consisting of the modern countries of , , , and , which he ruled from , in Tunisia. Newly built capital, or Mansuriyya (المنصوريه), near , , was the capital of the Fatimid Caliphate during the rules of the Imams (r. 946–953) and  (r. 953–975).

The Fatimid general Jawhar conquered Egypt in 969, and he built a new palace city there, near Fusṭāt, which he also called al-Manṣūriyya. Under, the Fatimids conquered the (see ), founding a new capital at al-Qāhira  in 969. The name was a reference to the planet Mars, "The Subduer", which was prominent in the sky at the moment that city construction started. Cairo was intended as a royal enclosure for the Fatimid caliph and his army, though the actual administrative and economic capital of Egypt was in cities such as until 1169. After Egypt, the Fatimids continued to conquer the surrounding areas until they ruled from Tunisia to, as well as.

Under the Fatimids, Egypt became the center of an empire that included at its peak, Sicily, , , , Syria, the coast of Africa, , , and. Egypt flourished, and the Fatimids developed an extensive trade network in both the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. Their trade and diplomatic ties extended all the way to and its, which eventually determined the economic course of Egypt during the.

After the eighteenth Imam,, the Nizari sect believed that his son was his successor, while another Ismāʿīlī branch known as the Mustaali (from whom the Dawoodi Bohra would eventually descend), supported his other son,. The Fatimid dynasty continued with al-Musta'li as both Imam and Caliph, and that joint position held until the 20th Imam, (1132). At the death of Imam Amir, one branch of the Mustaali faith claimed that he had transferred the imamate to his son, who was then two years old. After the decay of the Fatimid political system in the 1160s, the ruler  had his general,, seized Egypt from the vizier  in 1169. Shirkuh died two months after taking power, and the rule went to his nephew,. This began the.

Crusades
Beginning in the 8th century, the had begun the  aimed at retaking Al-Andalus from the Moors. In 1095,, inspired by the conquests in Spain by Christian forces and implored by the to help defend Christianity in the East, called for the  from Western Europe which captured , ,  and Jerusalem.

In the early period of the Crusades, the Christian emerged and for a time controlled Jerusalem. The Kingdom of Jerusalem and other smaller over the next 90 years formed part of the complicated politics of the, but did not threaten the Islamic Caliphate nor other powers in the region. After ended Fatimid rule in 1169, uniting it with Syria, the Crusader kingdoms were faced with a threat, and his nephew Saladin reconquered most of the area in 1187, leaving the Crusaders holding a few ports.

In the armies from Europe failed to recapture Jerusalem, though Crusader states lingered for several decades, and other crusades followed. The Christian Reconquista continued in Al-Andalus, and was eventually completed with the in 1492. During the low period of the Crusades, the was diverted from the Levant and instead took, leaving the Eastern Roman Empire (now the Byzantine Empire) further weakened in their long struggle against the  to the east. However, the crusaders did manage to damage Islamic caliphates; according to, preventing them from further expansion into and being targets of the Mamluks and the Mongols.

Ayyubid dynasty
The was founded by  and centered in Egypt. In 1174, Saladin proclaimed himself Sultan and conquered the Near East region. The Ayyubids ruled much of the Middle East during the 12th and 13th centuries, controlling Egypt, Syria, northern Mesopotamia, Hejaz, Yemen, and the North African coast up to the borders of modern-day Tunisia. After Saladin, his sons contested control over the sultanate, but Saladin's brother al-Adil eventually established himself in 1200. In the 1230s, Syria's Ayyubid rulers attempted to win independence from Egypt and remained divided until Egyptian Sultan as-Salih Ayyub restored Ayyubid unity by taking over most of Syria, excluding, by 1247. In 1250, the dynasty in the Egyptian region was overthrown by slave regiments. A number of attempts to recover it failed, led by an-Nasir Yusuf of Aleppo. In 1260, the Mongols sacked Aleppo and wrested control of what remained of the Ayyubid territories soon after.

Mongol invasions
After the Crusades the invaded in the 13th century, marking the end of the. Some historians assert that the eastern Islamic world never fully recovered. Under the leadership of, The Mongols put an end to the Abbasid era. The began in 1219 at a huge cost in civilian life and economic devastation. The Mongols spread throughout Central Asia and Persia: the Persian city of had fallen to them by 1237.

With the election of Khan in 1251, The Mongols targeted the Abbasid capital, Baghdad. Mongke's brother,, was made leader of the assigned to the task of subduing Baghdad. The in 1258 destroyed what had been the largest city in Islam. The last Abbasid caliph,, was captured and killed; and Baghdad was ransacked and destroyed. The cities of Damascus and Aleppo fell in 1260. Plans for the conquest of Egypt were delayed due to the death of Mongke at around the same time. The Abbasid army lost to the superior Mongol army, but the invaders were finally stopped by Egyptian Mamluks north of Jerusalem in 1260 at the pivotal.

Islamic Mongol empires
Ultimately, the, , and the - three of the four principal Mongol khanates - embraced Islam. In power in Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia and further east, over the rest of the 13th century gradually all converted to Islam. Most Ilkhanid rulers were replaced by the new Mongol power founded by (himself a Muslim), who conquered Persia in the 1360s, and moved against the  in India and the  in. Timur's ceaseless conquests were accompanied by displays of brutality matched only by, whose example Timur consciously imitated. , the cosmopolitan capital of Timur's empire, flourished under his rule as never before, while Iran and Iraq suffered large-scale devastation. The Middle East was still recovering from the, which may have killed one third of the population in the region. The plague began in China, and reached in Egypt in 1347, spreading over the following years to most Islamic areas. The combination of the plague and the wars left the Middle Eastern Islamic world in a seriously weakened position. The would found many branches of Islam, including the  of India.

Mamluk Sultanate
In 1250, the Ayyubid Egyptian dynasty was overthrown by slave regiments, and the was born. Military prestige was at the center of Mamluk society, and it played a key role in the confrontations with the Mongol forces. In the 1260s, the Mongols sacked and controlled the Islamic Near East territories. The Mamluks, who were, forced out the Mongols (see ) after the final destruction of the Ayyubid dynasty. The Mongols were again defeated by the Mamluks at the a few months later, and then driven out of Syria altogether. With this, the Mamluks were able to concentrate their forces and to conquer the last of the crusader territories in the Levant. Thus they united Syria and Egypt for the longest interval between the Abbasid and Ottoman empires (1250–1517). The Mamluks experienced a continual state of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition between the "Muslim territory" and "non-Muslim territory".

As part of their chosen role as defenders of Islamic orthodoxy, the Mamluks sponsored many religious buildings, including mosques, and s. Though some construction took place in the provinces, the vast bulk of these projects expanded the capital. Many Mamluk buildings in Cairo have survived to this day, particularly in Old Cairo.

Burji Sultans

 * See also:

Al-Andalus
The Arabs, under the command of the Berber General, first began their conquest of southern Spain or al-Andalus in 711. A raiding party led by Tarik was sent to intervene in a civil war in the in. Crossing the (named after the General), it won a decisive victory in the summer of 711 when the Visigothic king  was defeated and killed on July 19 at the. Tariq's commander, crossed with substantial reinforcements, and by 718 the Muslims dominated most of the peninsula. Some later Arabic and Christian sources present an earlier raid by a certain in 710 and also, the Ad Sebastianum recension of the , refers to an Arab attack incited by  during the reign of  (672–80). The two large armies may have been in the south for a year before the decisive battle was fought.

The rulers of Al-Andalus were granted the rank of by the    in. After the came to power, some Umayyads fled to Muslim Spain to establish themselves there. By the end of the 10th century, the ruler took over the title of (912-961). Soon after, the Umayyads went on developing a strengthened state with its capital as. succeeded to the Caliphate after the death of his father Abd ar-Rahman III in 961. He secured peace with the Christian kingdoms of northern Iberia, and made use of the stability to develop agriculture through the construction of irrigation works. Economic development was also encouraged through the widening of streets and the building of markets. The rule of the Caliphate is known as the heyday of Muslim presence in the peninsula.

The Umayyad Caliphate collapsed in 1031 due to political divisions and civil unrest during the rule of who was ousted because of his indolence. Al-Andalus then broke up into a number of states called  (Arabic, Muluk al-ṭawā'if; English, Petty kingdoms). The decomposition of the Caliphate into those s weakened the Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula vis-à-vis the Christian kingdoms of the north. Some of the taifas, such as that of Seville, were forced to enter into alliances with Christian princes and pay tributes in money to Castille.

Emirs of Al-Andalus
and Bedr (a former Greek slave) escaped with their lives after the popular revolt known as the. Rahman I continued south through Palestine, the Sinai, and then into Egypt. Rahman I was one of several surviving Umayyad family members to make a perilous trek to Ifriqiya at this time. Rahman I and Bedr reached modern day Morocco near. Next step would be to cross to sea to al-Andalus, where Rahman I could not have been sure whether he would be welcome. Following the (740s), the province was in a state of confusion, with the  torn by tribal dissensions among the Arabs and racial tensions between the Arabs and Berbers. Bedr lined up three Syrian commanders – and, both originally of Damascus, and Yusuf ibn Bukht of Qinnasrin and contacted al-Sumayl (then in ) to get his consent, but al-Sumayl refused, fearing Rahman I would try to make himself emir. After discussion with Yemenite commanders, Rahman I was told to go to al-Andalus. Shortly thereafter, he set off with Bedr and a small group of followers for Europe. Abd al-Rahman landed at in al-Andalus, to the east of.

During his brief time in Málaga, he quickly amassed local support. News of the prince's arrival spread throughout the peninsula. In order to help speed his ascension to power, he took advantage of the feuds and dissensions. However, before anything could be done, trouble broke out in northern al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman and his followers were able to. Rahman I fought to rule al-Andalus in a battle at the, just outside Córdoba on the plains of Musarah (Battle of Musarah). Rahman I was victorious, chasing his enemies from the field with parts of their army. Rahman I marched into the capital, Córdoba, fighting off a, but negotiations ended the confrontation. After Rahman I consolidated power, he proclaimed himself the al-Andalus emir. Rahman I did not claim the Muslim caliph, though. The last step was to have al-Fihri's general, al-Sumayl, garroted in Córdoba's jail. Al-Andalus was a for the house of Umayya that managed to evade the Abbasids.

In Baghdad, the Abbasid caliph had planned to depose the emir. Rahman I and his army confronted the Abbasids, killing most of the Abbasid army. The main Abbasid leaders were decapitated, their heads preserved in salt, with identifying tags pinned to their ears. The heads were bundled in a gruesome package and sent to the Abbasid caliph who was on pilgrimage at Mecca. Rahman I quelled repeated rebellions in al-Andalus. He began the building of the great mosque [cordova], and formed ship-yards along the coast; he is moreover said to have been the first to transplant the palm and the pomegranate into the congenial climate of Spain: and he encouraged science and literature in his states. He died on 29 September 788, after a reign of thirty-four years and one month.

Rahman I's successor was his son. Born in Córdoba, he built many s and completed the. He called for a that resulted in a campaign against the  and the ; in this second campaign he was defeated at Orange by, first cousin to. His successor came to power and was challenged by his uncles, other sons of Rahman I. One, Abdallah, went to the court of Charlemagne in  to negotiate for aid. In the mean time Córdoba was attacked, but was defended. Hakam I spent much of his reign suppressing rebellions in Toledo, Saragossa and Mérida.

succeeded his father and engaged in nearly continuous warfare against, whose southward advance he halted. Rahman II repulsed an assault by who had disembarked in, conquered  (with the exception of its ) and attacked Córdoba. Thereafter he constructed a fleet and naval at  to repel future raids. He responded to 's requests of assistance in his struggle against 's nominations.

's reign was marked by the movements of the (ethnic Iberian Muslims) and s (Muslim-Iberia Christians). Muhammad I was succeeded by his son. During the reign of his father, Mundhir I commanded military operations against the neighbouring Christian kingdoms and the Muladi rebellions. At his father's death, he inherited the throne. During his two-year reign, Mundhir I fought against. He died in 888 at Bobastro, succeeded by his brother.

Umawi showed no reluctance to dispose of those he viewed as a threat. His government was marked by continuous wars between Arabs, Berbers and Muladi. His power as emir was confined to the area of Córdoba, while the rest had been seized by rebel families. The son he had designated as successor was killed by one of Umawi's brothers. The latter was in turn executed by Umawi's father, who named as successor, son of the killed son of Umawi.

Almoravid Ifriqiyah and Iberia

 * Ifriqiyah, Iberian

Islam in Africa
The continued the century of rapid Muslim military expansion following the death of  in 632. By 640 the Arabs controlled, had invaded , and were concluding their conquest of. was the seat of the. By the end of 641 all of was in Arab hands. A subsequent attempt to conquer the kingdom of  was however repelled.

Maghreb
in was the first city founded by Muslims in the. Arab general erected the city (in 670) and, in the same time, the  considered as the oldest and most prestigious sanctuary in the western Islamic world.

This part of Islamic territory has had independent governments during most of Islamic history. The were the first Arab rulers in the western  (Morocco), ruling from 788 to 985. The dynasty is named after its first.

The was a Berber dynasty from the  flourished over a wide area of North-Western Africa and the  during the 11th century. Under this dynasty the empire was extended over present-day Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Gibraltar,  (in Algeria) and a part of what is now  and  in the south, and Spain and Portugal in the north.

The or "the Unitarians", were a Berber Muslim religious power which founded the fifth  dynasty in the 12th century, and conquered all Northern Africa as far as Egypt, together with Al-Andalus.

Horn of Africa
The history of Islam in the is almost as old as the faith itself. Through extensive trade and social interactions with their converted Muslim trading partners on the other side of the, in the , merchants and sailors in the Horn region gradually came under the influence of the new religion.

Early Islamic disciples fled to the port city of in modern-day northern  to seek protection from the  at the court of the  in present-day Somalia. Some of the Muslims that were granted protection are said to have then settled in several parts of the Horn region to promote the religion. The victory of the Muslims over the Quraysh in the 7th century had a significant impact on local merchants and sailors, as their trading partners in Arabia had by then all adopted Islam, and the major trading routes in the and the Red Sea came under the sway of the. Instability in the Arabian peninsula saw further migrations of early Muslim families to the Somali seaboard. These clans came to serve as catalysts, forwarding the faith to large parts of the Horn region.

Great Lakes
Islam came to the region of South Eastern Africa along existing trade routes. They learned from them the manners of the Muslims and this led to their conversion by the Muslim Arabs.

Local Islamic governments centered in (then ). The people of  were Muslims that immigrated to the Great Lakes region. In the pre-colonial period, the structure of Islamic authority here was held up through the  (wanawyuonis, in ). These leaders had some degree of authority over most of the Muslims in South East Africa before territorial boundaries were established. The chief there was recognized for having the final religious authority.

Indian subcontinent
On the, Islam first appeared in the southwestern tip of the peninsula, in today's state. Arabs traded with even before the birth of Muhammad. Native legends say that a group of, under , arrived on the and preached Islam. According to that legend, was built by Second Chera King Cheraman Perumal, who accepted Islam and received the name Tajudheen. Historical records suggest that the was built in around 629.

Islamic rule first came to the Indian subcontinent in the 8th century, when conquered, though this was a short-lived consolidation of Indian territory. Islamic conquests expanded under in the 12th century CE, resulting in the establishment of the  in the Indus River basin and the subsequent prominence of  as an eastern bastion of Ghaznavid culture and rule. Ghaznavid rule was eclipsed by the of  and, whose domain extended until the. conquered in 1206 and began the reign of the , a successive series of dynasties that synthesized Indian civilization with the wider commercial and cultural networks of Africa and Eurasia, greatly increased demographic and economic growth in India and deterred Mongol incursion into the prosperous.

Many prominent sultanates and emirates administered various regions of the Indian subcontinent from the 13th to the 16th centuries, such as the, , , , and  but none rivaled the power and extensive reach of the  at its zenith. The Bengal Sultanate in particular was a cosmopolitan and prosperous empire at the easternmost end of the Islamic world, while the Shah Mir dynasty ensured the gradual conversion of to Islam.

Persian culture, art, language, cuisine and literature grew in prominence in India due to Islamic administration and the immigration of soldiers, bureaucrats, merchants, Sufis, artists, poets, teachers and architects from Iran and Central Asia, resulting in the early development of.

China
In China, four Sahabas (Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas, Wahb Abu Kabcha, and ) preached in 616/17 and onwards after following the –– route after sailing from  in 615/16. After conquering Persia in 636, Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas went with, and  to China in 637 taking the complete Quran. Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas headed for China for the third time in 650–51 after Caliph Uthman asked him to lead an embassy to China, which the Chinese emperor received.

Southeast Asia
Islam first reached through traders from Mecca in the 7th century, particularly via the western part of what is now. Arab traders from Yemen already had a presence in Asia through trading and travelling by sea, serving as intermediary traders to and from Europe and Africa. They traded not only Arabian goods but also goods from Africa, India, and so on which included ivory, fragrances, spices, and gold.

According to in The Preaching of Islam, by the 2nd century of the Islamic Calendar, Arab traders had been trading with the inhabitants of, modern-day Sri Lanka. The same argument has been told by Dr. B.H. Burger and Dr. Mr. Prajudi in Sedjarah Ekonomis Sosiologis Indonesia (History of Socio Economic of Indonesia) According to an atlas created by the geographer Al-Biruni (973–1048), the Indian or Indonesian Ocean used to be called the Persian Ocean. After Western Imperialist rule, this name was changed to reflect the name used today; the Indian Ocean.

Soon, many missionaries translated classical  from Arabic and Persian into ; a tangible product of this is the. Coupled with the composing of original in Malay, this led the way to the transformation of Malay into an Islamic language. By 1292, when visited Sumatra, most of the inhabitants had converted to Islam. The was founded on the  by, a n Prince.

Through trade and commerce, Islam then spread to and. By the late 15th century, had been introduced to the  via the southern island of. The foremost socio-cultural Muslim entities that resulted form this are the present-day and ; Islamised kingdoms in the northern  island, such as the  and the, were later conquered and  with the majority of the archipelago by  beginning in the 16th century.

As Islam spread, societal changes developed from the individual conversions, and five centuries later it emerged as a dominant cultural and political power in the region. Three main Muslim political powers emerged. The was the most important, controlling much of the area between Southeast Asia and India from its centre in northern. The Sultanate also attracted. The second Muslim power was the Sultanate of Malacca on the Malay Peninsula. The on Java was the third power, where the emerging Muslim forces defeated the local  kingdom in the early 16th century. Although the sultanate managed to expand its territory somewhat, its rule remained brief.

forces captured Malacca in 1511 under naval general. With Malacca subdued, the and  established themselves as centres of Islam in Southeast Asia. The Sultanate's territory, although vastly diminished, remains intact to this day as the modern state of.

Early Modern period
In the 15th and 16th centuries three major Muslim empires formed: the in the Middle East, the  and ; the  in ; and the  in South Asia. These imperial powers were made possible by the discovery and exploitation of and more efficient administration.

Ottoman Empire
The Seljuq Turks declined in the second half of the 13th century, after the. This resulted in the establishment of multiple Turkish principalities, known as liks. , the founder of the, assumed leadership of one of these principalities at the end of the thirteenth century, succeeding his father. Osman I afterwards led it in a series of battles with the Byzantine Empire. By 1331, the Ottomans had captured, the former Byzantine capital, under the leadership of Osman's son and successor,. Victory at the against the s in 1389 then facilitated their expansion into Europe. The Ottomans were established in the and Anatolia by the time  ascended to power in the same year, now at the helm of a growing empire.

Growth halted when Mongol warlord (also known as "Tamerlane") captured Bayezid I in the  in 1402, beginning the. This episode was characterized by the division of the Ottoman territory amongst Bayezid I's sons, who submitted to authority. When a number of Ottoman territories regained independent status, ruin for the Empire loomed. However, the empire recovered, as the youngest son of Bayezid I,, waged offensive campaigns against his ruling brothers, thereby reuniting and declaring himself sultan in 1413.

Around this time the Ottoman fleet developed, such that they were able to challenge, a. They also attempted to reconquer the Balkans. By the time of Mehmed I's grandson, (ruled 1444–1446; 1451–1481), the Ottomans could lay siege to, the capital of Byzantium. A factor in this siege was the use of and large s introduced by the Ottomans. The Byzantine fortress in 1453, after 54 days of siege. Without its capital the Byzantine Empire disintegrated. The future successes of the Ottomans and later empires would depend upon the exploitation of.

In the early 16th century, the Shi'ite assumed control in Persia under the leadership of , defeating the ruling  federation  (also called the "White Sheep Turkomans") in 1501. The Ottoman sultan sought to repel Safavid expansion, challenging and defeating them at the  in 1514. Selim I also deposed the ruling Mamluks in Egypt, absorbing their territories in 1517. (also known as Suleiman the Magnificent), Selim I's successor, took advantage of the diversion of Safavid focus to the on the eastern frontier and recaptured Baghdad, which had fallen under Safavid control. Despite this, Safavid power remained substantial, rivalling the Ottomans. Suleiman I advanced deep into Hungary following the in 1526 —  thereafter, and signed a Franco-Ottoman alliance with  against  of the  10 years later. While Suleiman I's rule (1520–1566) is often identified as the apex of Ottoman power, the empire continued to remain powerful and influential until a relative fall in its military strength in the second half of the eighteenth century.

Safavid Empire
The rose to power in  in 1501 and later conquered the rest of Iran. They were of mixed ancestry, originally, but during their rule intermarried with , , , and .The Safavids were originally Sufi and Iran was Sunni. After their defeat at the hands of the Sunni Ottomans at the, to unite the Persians behind him, made conversion mandatory for the largely Sunni population to Twelver Shia so that he could get them to fight the Sunni Ottomans.

This resulted in the. , the largest group amongst the Shia before the were also forced to convert to the Twelver Shia. The at that time used the Hanafi Fiqh, as did most Sunnis and there were good relations between them. and were also very good friends.

The dynasty from  ruled from 1501 to 1736, and which established   Islam as the region's  and united its provinces under a single sovereignty, thereby reigniting the  identity.

Although claiming to be the descendants of, the Safavids were (the name "Safavid" comes from a Sufi order called Safavi). Their origins go back to, a local dignitary from the north. During their rule, the Safavids recognized Twelver Shi'a Islam as the State religion, thus giving the region a separate identity from its Sunni neighbours.

In 1524, acceded to the throne, initiating a revival of the arts. became a major industry. The tradition of painting in manuscripts reached its peak, until Tahmasp turned to strict religious observance in middle age, prohibiting the consumption of alcohol and  and removing s, s and s.  Tahmasp's nephew  continued to patronize a last flowering of the arts until he was murdered, after which many artists were recruited by the Mughal dynasty.

Tahmasp's grandson,, restored the shrine of the eighth Twelver Shi'a Imam, at , and restored the dynastic shrine at. Both shrines received jewelry, fine manuscripts and Chinese porcelains. Abbas moved the capital to, revived old ports, and established thriving trade with Europeans. Amongst Abbas's most visible cultural achievements was the construction of  ("Design of the World"). The plaza, located near a Friday mosque, covered 20 acre.

The was toppled in 1722 by the, which ended their forceful conversion of Sunni areas to Shiaism.

Mughal Empire
Mughal Empire was a power that comprised almost all of, founded in 1526. It was established and ruled by the, with  roots from , claiming direct descent from both  (through his son ) and , and with significant Indian  and  ancestry through marriage alliances; the first two  had both parents of Central Asian ancestry, while successive emperors were of predominantly Rajput and Persian ancestry. The dynasty was in culture, combining  culture with local  influences visible in its court culture and administrative customs.

The beginning of the empire is conventionally dated to the victory by its founder over, the last ruler of the , in the  (1526). During the reign of, the successor of Babur, the empire was briefly interrupted by the established by , who re-established the  across the northern Indian subcontinent, initiated the  currency system and developed much of the foundations of the effective administration of Mughal rule. The "classic period" of the Mughal Empire began in 1556, with the ascension of to the throne. Some Rajput kingdoms continued to pose a significant threat to the Mughal dominance of northwestern India, but most of them were subdued by Akbar. All Mughal emperors were s; Akbar, however, propounded a syncretic religion in the latter part of his life called, as recorded in historical books like ' and '. The Mughal Empire did not try to intervene in native societies during most of its existence, rather co-opting and pacifying them through concilliatory administrative practices and a syncretic, inclusive ruling elite, leading to more systematic, centralized and uniform rule. Traditional and newly coherent social groups in northern and western India, such as the, the , the , the and the , gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule which, through collaboration or adversity, gave them both recognition and military experience.

The reign of (1628–1658) represented the height of, with famous monuments such as the , , ,  and  being constructed during his reign.

The reign of through  and  via his compilation of the,  became the world's largest economy, valued 25% of world .Its richest province, , which was world leading economy and have had better conditions to 18th-century , caused the appearance of the .causing the emergence of the period of.

After the death of, which marks the end of Medieval India and beginning of the European colonialism in India, internal dissatisfaction arose due to the weakness of the empire's administrative and economic systems, leading to its break-up and declarations of independence of its former provinces by the , the , the , the major economic and military power known as ruled by  and other small states. In 1739, the Mughals were crushingly defeated in the by the forces of, the founder of the  in Persia, and Delhi was , drastically accelerating their decline.

In 1757, the overtook  at the. By the mid-18th century, the had routed Mughal armies and won over several Mughal provinces from the  to.

The were fought between, his son  with French Allies, including , and the. The and the world's first iron-cased rockets, the, were used during the war and the  based  was compiled.

During the following century Mughal power had become severely limited, and the last emperor,, had authority over only the city of. Bahadur issued a  supporting the. Consequent to the rebellion's defeat he was tried by the for treason, imprisoned, and exiled to. The last remnants of the empire were formally taken over by the British, and the passed the  to enable  formally to displace the rights of the East India Company and assume direct control of India in the form of the new.

Modern period
The modern age brought technological and organizational changes to Europe while the Islamic region continued the patterns of earlier centuries. The European powers, and especially and, globalized economically and colonized much of the region.

Ottoman Empire partition
By the end of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire had declined. The decision to back in  meant they shared the ' defeat in that war. The defeat led to the overthrow of the Ottomans by Turkish nationalists led by the victorious general of the :, who became known to his people as Atatürk, "Father of the Turks." Atatürk was credited with renegotiating the (1920) which ended Turkey's involvement in the war and establishing the modern, which was recognized by the  in the. Atatürk went on to implement an ambitious program of modernization that emphasized economic development and ization. He transformed Turkish culture to reflect European laws, adopted, the , separated the religious establishment from the state, and emancipated woman—even giving them the right to vote in parallel with in the west.

Following World War I, the vast majority of former Ottoman territory outside of Asia Minor was handed over to the victorious European powers as s. During the war the Allies had promised the subject peoples independence in exchange for their assistance fighting the Turkish powers. To their dismay, they found that this system of "protectorates" was a smoke-screen for their continued subjugation by the British and the French. The struggles for independence from their Turkish overlords and the cooperation of partisan forces with the British were romanticized in the stories of British secret intelligence agent —later known as "Lawrence of Arabia." Ottoman successor states include today's, , , Egypt, Greece, Iraq, , Lebanon, , , , , , Turkey, Balkan states, North Africa and the north shore of the.

Many Muslim countries sought to adopt European political organization and began to emerge in the Muslim world. Countries like Egypt, Syria and Turkey organized their governments and sought to develop national pride among their citizens. Other places, like Iraq, were not as successful due to a lack of unity and an inability to resolve age-old prejudices between Muslim sects and against non-Muslims.

Some Muslim countries, such as Turkey and Egypt, sought to separate Islam from the secular government. In other cases, such as Saudi Arabia, the government brought out religious expression in the re-emergence of the puritanical form of Sunni Islam known to its detractors as, which found its way into the.

Arab–Israeli conflict
The Arab–Israeli conflict spans about a century of political tensions and open hostilities. It involves the establishment of the modern as a ish, the consequent  of the  and , as well as the adverse relationship between the  states and the State of Israel (see related ). Despite at first involving only the Arab states bordering Israel, animosity has also developed between Israel and other predominantly.

The of June 5–10, 1967, was fought between  and the neighbouring states of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. The Arab countries closed the and it was followed in May 1970 by the closure of the "tapline" from Saudi Arabia through Syria to Lebanon. These developments had the effect of increasing the importance of in, which is a short (and canal-free) shipping distance from Europe. In 1970, broke with other oil companies and accepted the Arab demands for price increases.

In October 1973, a new war between Israel and its Muslim neighbours, known as the, broke out just as the oil companies began meeting with leaders. OPEC had been emboldened by the success of campaigns and the war strengthened their unity. In response to the emergency resupply effort by the that enabled Israel to put up a resistance against the Egyptian and Syrian forces, the Arab world imposed the 1973 oil embargo against the United States and Western Europe. Faisal agreed that Saudi Arabia would use some of its oil wealth to finance the "front-line states", those that bordered Israel, in their struggle. The centrality of petroleum, the and political and economic instability and uncertainty remain constant features of the politics of the region.

Many countries, individuals and elsewhere in the world feel involved in this conflict for reasons such as cultural and religious ties with Islam,, , , , or for ideological, , or strategic reasons. Although some consider the Arab–Israeli conflict a part of (or a precursor to) a wider between the  and the, others oppose this view. Animosity emanating from this conflict has caused numerous attacks on supporters (or perceived supporters) of each side by supporters of the other side in many countries around the world.

Other Islamic affairs
In 1979 the transformed  from a constitutional monarchy to a    under the rule of , a Shi'i Muslim cleric and . Following the Revolution, and a new constitution was approved and a referendum established the government, electing Ruhollah Khomeini as. During the following two years, liberals, leftists, and Islamic groups fought each other, and the Islamics captured power.

The development of the two opposite fringes, the the Twelver Shia version and its reinforcement by the  and the  in Saudi Arabia, coupled with the  resulted in these governments using sectarian conflict to enhance their political interests. Gulf states such as Saudi Arabia and Kuwait (despite being hostile to Iraq) encouraged to invade Iran, which resulted in the, as they feared that an Islamic revolution would take place within their own borders. Certain Iranian exiles also helped convince Saddam that if he invaded, the fledgling Islamic republic would quickly collapse.